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SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

AN  ELEMENTARY  TEXTBOOK 
OF  ENTOMOLOGY 


FOR    SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND 
AGRICULTURAL  SHORT  COURSES 


BY 
E.   DWIGHT  SANDERSON 

AND 

L.  M.  PEAIRS 


FIRST   EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,   Inc. 

London:     CHAPMAN     &     HALL,     Limited 
1917 


Copyright,  1917 

BY 

E.  DWIGHT   SANDERSON    and    L.  M.  PEAIRS 


PRESS  or 

BRAUNWORTH    Ii    CO. 

BOOK    MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN.    N.    Y. 


INTRODITCTION 


Entomology  is  briefly  defined  as  the  study  of  insects 
in  all  their  relations  and  activities.  Its  importance  is  due 
to  the  numbers  of  species  and  the  abundance  of  individ- 
uals in  the  insect  group.  In  both  these  respects  insects 
form  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  our  land  fauna.  Vari- 
ous estimates  place  the  number  of  species  of  insects  at 
from  one  to  ten  millions  and  the  number  of  individuals 
is  far  beyond  calculation.  Of  these  species  nearly  a  half 
milHon  have  been  named  and  described. 

The  range  of  insects  is  almost  universal  on  land,  but 
only  a  few  forms  are  marine  in  habitat.  Intensively  speak- 
ing, their  range  is  equally  great.  In  any  given  locality 
insects  may  be  found  inhabiting  every  conceivable  situ- 
ation and  living  on  the  greatest  variety  of  foods. 

When  we  consider  the  vast  numbers  of  insect  forms 
and  their  wide  distribution  and  range  in  food  habits  it 
seems  inevitable  that  many  of  these  forms  should  clash 
with  man,  and  this  is  indeed  the  case.  Many  of  the 
earth's  products  which  are  most  useful  and  highly  desira- 
ble to  man  are  attractive  to  insects  as  well.  Man,  in  his 
assumed  character  of  the  dominant  animal,  claims  prior 
right  and  such  insects  as  affect  his  welfare  or  comfort  are 
Usted  as  pests. 

Less  account  is  taken  by  man  of  his  insect  allies,  those 
forms  which  minister  directly  to  his  needs,  or  those  which, 
in  a  roundabout  way,  add  to  his  pleasure  or  his  revenues. 

ill 


iv  INTRODUCTION 

The  extent  of  insect  injuries  in  the  United  States  has 
been  carefully  estimated  by  experts  in  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  these  estimates  place  the  total  annual 
loss  at  not  far  from  the  stupendous  sum  of  one  billion 
dollars.  This  estimated  loss  is  divided  among  various 
classes  of  products.  Of  these,  grain  and  forage  crops  are 
the  heaviest  sufferers,  bearing  about  one-third  of  the  total; 
the  live  stock  industry  assumes  another  third;  truck 
crops  stand  one-sixth  the  total  loss.  After  these  come, 
with  smaller  totals,  cotton,  fruit,  tobacco,  forests  and  mis- 
cellaneous products. 

In  addition  to  the  tangible  monetary  losses  occasioned 
by  the  activities  of  the  insects  which  attack  crops,  must 
be  considered  the  less  definite,  but  none  the  less  real,  im- 
portance which  is  based  on  their  disease-carrying  faculties, 
the  study  and  knowledge  of  which  has  been  confined  to 
the  more  recent  years. 

No  one  can  estimate  the  actual  importance  of  the  mos- 
quitoes in  terms  of  dollars.  The  money  loss  to  the  nation 
in  any  year  from  malaria  is  undoubtedly  great,  but  the 
importance  of  the  insects  which  transmit  it  from  one 
person  to  another  would  not  be  based  on  the  consideration 
of  money  at  all.  Nor  is  the  comfort  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  mosquito-ridden  lands  a  financial  problem,  primar- 
ily, although  land  values  undoubtedly  increase  rapidly 
when  the  mosquito-breeding  places  are  destroyed. 

The  house-fly,  carrier  of  filth  as  it  has  long  been  known 
to  be,  and  carrier  of  disease  from  a  more  recent  convic- 
tion, likewise  is  not  a  problem  of  the  pocketbook.  Both 
are,  in  the  larger  sense,  problems  of  the  higher  civihza- 
tion,  and  both  add  to  the  importance  of  the  study  of 
insects  and  present  this  in  an  entirely  different  light  than 
the  one  of  the  billion  dollar  annual  loss. 


INTRODUCTION  V 

On  the  other  hand  are  the  beneficial  forms.  Those 
that  operate  directly  are  familiar  to  all,  the  producers  of 
honey  and  of  silk  being  the  best  known.  Of  far  more 
value  even  than  these  are  the  ones  which  fertilize  the 
flowers  and  make  possible  the  production  of  seeds  and 
fruit.  Take  away  the  insects  and  a  large  part  of  our  flora 
would  disappear  through  inability  to  propagate  itself 
without  the  aid  of  insects. 

But  the  student  of  entomology  does  not  necessarily 
make  the  economic  importance  of  the  subject  his  prime 
motive  for  taking  up  the  study.  To  many  the  charm  of 
the  subject  Ues,  not  in  the  consideration  of  the  hundreds 
of  forms  that  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  welfare  of  man, 
but  rather,  in  the  thousands  and  thousands  whose  claim 
to  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  a  part  of  the 
great  scheme  of  nature  and  that  the  study  of  them  will, 
hke  few  other  studies,  bring  one  into  close  touch  with 
nature.  The  economic  phases  of  the  subject  are  acquired 
in  a  perfectly  natural  and  logical  manner  through  the 
study  of  the  life  histories  of  the  most  common  forms, 
since  many  of  these  are  at  the  same  time  the  most  in- 
jurious. 

To  inculcate  in  the  young  student  a  love  of  nature  and 
to  stimulate  the  faculties  to  observe  what  is  going  on  in 
the  great  world  of  nature,  nothing  is  better  than  the 
study  of  insects.  This  forces  the  student  to  take  an  in- 
terest also  in  the  kindred  subject  of  botany,  since  there 
are  few  plants  that  are  not  directly  affected  by  insects 
and  which  will  not  be  involved  in  the  studies  of  the  biol- 
ogy of  the  many  forms. 

Entomology  may  be  studied  to  the  best  advantage  in 
the  spring,  summer  and  fall,  but  the  subject  is  by  no 
means  closed  during  the  winter  months,  as  there  are  many 


VI  INTKODUCTION 

insects  whose  entire  life  histories  cannot  be  studied  with- 
out continuation  of  the  observations  throughout  the  year. 

This  work  aims  to  present  the  subject  in  a  simple 
fashion  so  that  the  student  of  the  secondary  schools  can 
use  all  that  is  given.  It  attempts  to  make  the  student 
acquainted  with  only  the  more  important  groups  and  does 
not  go  as  deeply  into  the  scientific  phases  of  classification 
and  structure  as  a  work  intended  for  more  advanced  stu- 
dents should. 

Neither  does  it  give  as  much  attention  to  details  of 
description  of  species  as  a  work  of  larger  scope  could. 
The  aim  is  rather  to  present  the  general  idea  of  the  sub- 
ject so  that  it  can  be  covered  in  the  time  that  the  schools 
may  reasonably  be  expected  to  allot  to  it.  Brevity  is 
secured  rather  by  omission  than  by  any  lack  of  accuracy 
in  the  statements  included.  The  classification  employed 
is  the  one  in  general  use  and  the  one  best  known  to  the 
greater  number  of  entomological  students  who  will  be 
likely  to  use  the  work  for  a  text.  Its  greater  simphcity 
warrants  its  use  rather  than  the  more  scientific  arrange- 
ments and  nomenclatures  employed  by  the  most  modern 
writers. 

The  chapters  on  economic  entomology  are  presented 
with  the  same  object:  to  give  as  concise  an  idea  of  the 
more  common  injurious  forms  as  is  possible  in  a  Hmited 
space.  Here  again,  brevity  is  secured  by  the  omission  of 
the  less  important  and  less  generally  distributed  species 
rather  than  by  slighting  those  that  are  considered. 

The  junior  author  is  responsible  for  the  preparation  of 
Part  I,  and  the  senior  author  for  Part  II. 

E.  D.  S. 

L.  M.  P. 

June,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction iii 

PART  I 
GENERAL  ENTOMOLOGY 

CHAPTER 

I.  Definition  of  the  Subject 1 

II.  Insect  Structures 4 

III.  Insects  and  their  Near  Relatives 19 

IV.  The  Development  of  Insects 28 

V.  The  Lower  Orders 34 

VI.  Neuropteroid  Orders 41 

VII.  Orthoptera 48 

VIII.  Hemiptera 56 

IX.  Lepidoptera 72 

X.  Coleoptera 107 

XI.  Diptera 131 

XII.  Hymenoptera 142 

XIII.  The  Insect  Collection 163 


PART  II 

ECONOMIC  ENTOMOLOGY 

XIV.  Insects  Affecting  Man  and  Domestic  Animals 175 

XV.  Insects  Affecting  Household  Goods  and  Stored  Food 

Products 214 

XVI.  Field  Crop  Insects 236 

XVII.  Garden  Insects 266 

XVIII.  Orchard  Insects 287 

XIX  Insect  Control 323 

Appendix 339 

Index 345 

vii 


SCHOOL  ENTOAfOLOGY 


PART  I— GENERAL   ENTOMOLOGY 


CHAPTER  I 
DEFINITION   OF  THE   SUBJECT 

1.  Entomology  Defined.  Entomology  is  the  study  of 
insects  and  may  properly  include  facts  of  any  kind  what- 
soever that  pertain  to  insects  or  anj^  of  their  activities. 

2.  Insect  Characteristics.  Insects  are  animals  belong- 
ing to  a  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  known  as  the 
Arthropoda.  These  animals  all  have,  in  their  perfect  state, 
bodies  made  up  of  ringlike  plates  called  segments,  and  they 
have,  on  some  of  these  segments,  jointed  legs.  In  some 
members  of  the  branch  the  segments  are  so  nearly  grown 
together  that  they  are  not  distinguishable.  In  some  stages 
of  others,  the  legs  are  lacking,  but  all  members  of  the 
branch  have,  at  some  stage  of  their  existence,  at  least, 
traces  of  both  these  characteristics.  The  branch  includes, 
besides  the  insects,  spiders  and  their  relatives,  centipedes 
and  millipedes,  and  crayfish  and  lobsters  and  their  rela- 
tives, of  which  there  are  many  varied  forms. 

3.  Classification.  Each  one  of  these  groups  forms 
what  is  known  in   Zoology   (Zoology^  is  the  study  of  all 


2  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

animals  and  includes  Entomology)  as  a  class.    The  mem- 
bers of  any  class  that  are  alike  in  their  general  form  and 
structure  are  placed  together  in  the  first  sub-division  of 
any  class  and  constitute  what  we  call  an  order.     Those 
forms  in  any  order  that  show  close  resemblance  group  to- 
gether and  form  a  family  and  the  members  of  a  family 
that  are  even  more  similar  form  a  genus  (plural  genera). 
The  last  division  in  animal,  or  plant,  classification  is  the 
species.     Members  of  any  genus  which  are  exactly  alike 
or  as  nearly  alike  as  the  offspring  from  a  single  parent 
form,  constitute  a  species.     An  additional  character  of  a 
species  which  is,  by  the  way,  difficult  to  define  exactly,  is 
that  members  of  the  same  species  will  interbreed  and  pro- 
duce young  like  unto  themselves  which  will,  in  turn,  breed 
and  produce  fertile  young.     Some  species  will  show  varia- 
tion on  account  of  climate,  of  their  food,  or  from  some 
other  external  cause,  but  still  retain  their  power  to  inter- 
breed and  produce  like  young.     Such  differences  are  rec- 
ognized under  the  name  of  varieties.     In  Zoological  class- 
ification we  have,  first,  the 
Animal  Kingdom,  divided  into 
Branches,  composed  of 

Classes,  each  embracing  one  to  several 
Orders,  in  which  are  varying  numbers  of 
Families,  which  contain 
Genera,  and  finally  the 
Species. 
4.  Names.     The    classification    of    any    animal    shows 
all   the    above    divisions.     The    scientific   name,    which   is 
always  Latin  in  form  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  is  com- 
posed of  the  name  of  the  genus,  capitahzed,  followed  by 
the  name  of  the  species,   not  capitahzed,   and  then  the 
name  of  the  man  who  first  described  and  named  the  ani- 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   SUBJECT  3 

mal.  This  last  is  frequently  omitted  as  it  serves  no  pur- 
pose except  for  the  student  of  classification.  Names  of  all 
the  various  sub-divisions  are  Latin  in  form.  Family  names 
always  have  the  termination  -ida;  and  may  be  so  recog- 
nized as  no  other  scientific  names  are  given  that  ending. 
Super-family  names  end  in  ~ina,  or  -oidce,  but  are  not  so 
distinctive,  since  other  names  may  be  found  with  similar 
termination.  Sub-family  names  end  in  -ince.  Generic, 
specific  and  order  names  may  have  any  accepted  Latin 
termination. 


CHAPTER  II 


INSECT  STRUCTURES 


5.  Definition  for  an  Insect.  The  characters  of  the 
branch  to  which  insects  belong  have  been  given.  The 
characters  which  are  possessed  by  all  insects  are  embraced 
in  the  definition  for  an  insect  which  is  as  follows: 

An  insect  is  an  Arthropod  which  has  three  distinct  regions 
to  the  body,  the  head,  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen.  It 
bears,  on  the  head,   one    pair  of  antennce  or  feelers,  on  the 

thorax,  three  pairs  of  legs,  and, 
usually,  one  or  two  pairs  of 
wings. 

6.  The  Head.  The  insect 
body  is  made  up  of  a  variable 
number  of  segments,  but  this 
variation  is  always  in  the  third 
region  or  abdomen.  The  head 
consists  always  of  a  single  seg- 
ment. This  is  made  up  of  a 
skull-like  single  piece  to  which 
are  attached  the  antennae  and 
the  mouth  parts  and  in  which 
are  found  the  eyes.  This  skull 
is  called  the  epicranium.  The 
antennce  are  extremely  varia- 
ble. They  are  jointed  but  the  number  of  joints  ranges 
from  a  single  one  to  several  hundred.  They  may  be  almost 
too  small  to  be  seen  or  several  times  as  long  as  the  body. 

4 


Fig.  1. — Head  of  Grasshop- 
per, Front  View. 

a,  vertex;  6,  compound  eye;  c, 
ocellus;  d,  front;  e,  cheeks  or 
genae;  /,  clypeus;  g,  labrum;  h, 
edges  of  maxillae  and  labium;  i, 
mandibles. 


INSECT   STRUCTURES 


Their  purpose  is  primarily  for  feeling,  but  many  forms 
have  organs  of  smell  located  in  the  antennae.  Male  mos- 
quitoes hear  with  the  antennse  and  the  sense  of  taste, 
being  closely  related  to  smell,  may  be  found  in  some, 
although  this  is  by  no  means  certain. 

The  eyes  of  insects  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  com- 
pound.  Some  forms  have  both,  some  only  the  one  or  the 
other  and  some  have  neither,  being  entirely  blind.  The 
compound  eyes  are  borne  by  all  the  common  insects. 
They  consist  of  a  great  number  of  separate  lens-like  struc- 
tures crowded  together  to  make  one  eye.  Each  one  of 
these  has  its  own  field  of  vision,  the  object  as  seen  by  the 
insect  consisting  of  a  great  number  of  separate  parts 
thrown  on  its  retina  and  forming  a  mosaic  showing  the 
shape  of  the  object.  There  may  be  from  a  veiy  few,  fif- 
teen, to  as  many  as  fifty  thou-  ^ 
sand  separate  lenses  or  facets 
to  the  compound  eye.  In  many 
insects  the  eyes  take  up  the 
greater  part  of  the  head.  The 
simple  eyes,  more  frequently 
called  ocelli,  vaiy  in  number 
from  one  to  several.  They  are 
small  and  their  uses  are  not 
certainly  known. 

On  the  lower  or  anterior 
edge  of  the  epicrannmi  are 
attached  the  mouth -parts. 
These  are,  in  the  typical  in- 
sect, an  upper  Hp  or  lahrum, 
a  lower  Hp  or  labium,  a  pair  of  jaws  or  mandibles,  one 
on  each  side  just  below  the  labrum,  and  just  below 
these,   a  pair   of  supplementary  jaws  or  maxilloe.     On  each 


Fig.  2. — Mouth-parts  of  Chew- 
ing Insect  (Grasshopper). 

a,  labrum;  l.clypeus;  2,  labrum, 
proper  ;  b,  mandibles;  c,  labium; 
1,  submentum;  2,  mentum;  3,ligula; 
4,  palpiger;  5,  palpus;  d,  maxillse; 
1,  cardo;  2,  stipes;  3,  palpifer;  4, 
palpus;  5,  lacinia;  6,  galea;  e,  hypo- 
pharynx. 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


maxilla  is  a  finger-like  structure  called  a  palpus.  The 
labium  bears  a  similar  pair  of  palpi.  In  the  insect  which 
has  its  mouth-parts  modified  for  sucking  these  parts  will 

not  be  so  readily  recognized 
and  some  of  them  may  be  ab- 
sent. Most  of  them  may  be 
identified  by  their  relative  posi- 
tion at  the  point  of  attachment 
to  the  head,  as  this  never  varies. 
The  part  of  the  epicranium 
that  lies  between  the  eyes  and 
the  base  of  the  labrum  is  de- 
signated as  the  front.  To  either 
side  of  the  front  are  the  cheeks 
or  gence.  The  highest  point  of 
the  epicranium,  just  at  the  limit 
of  the  front,  is  the  vertex.  Back 
of  the  vertex,  eyes  and  cheeks 
lies  the  occiput.  This  fits  into  the  front  or  anterior  margin 
of  the  thorax. 

7.  The  Thorax.  The  thorax  of  an  insect  is  composed, 
always,  of  three  segments.  The  first  of  these  is  the  pro- 
thorax,  the  middle  one  is  the  mesothorax,  and  the  last 
or  posterior  segment,  is  the  metathorax.  Each  of  these 
bears  one  pair  of  legs  (in  the  perfect  insect  or  adult). 
The  front  wings,  where  there  are  two  pairs,  are  borne  on 
the  mesothorax,  and  the  second  pair  of  wings  is  attached 
to  the  metathorax.  Where  one  pair  of  wings  only  is  pres- 
ent it  is  the  front  pair. 

The  top  of  a  thoracic  segment  is  called  the  notum  of 
that  segment,  the  side  is  the  pleuron  and  the  bottom  plate 
the  sternum. 

An  insect's  leg  is  composed  of  several  joints  or  seg- 


FiG.  3. —  Mouth-parts   of 
Sucking  Insect,  (true  bug). 

a,  labrum;    6,  labium;    c,  man- 
dibles;  d,  maxillae. 


INSECT  STRUCTURES  7 

ments.  The  first  one,  joiiimg  the  body,  is  tlie  coxa.  This 
is  usually  small  and  rounded.  Next  to  the  coxa  is  a  small, 
sometimes  indistinct  but  sometimes  two-jointed,  part 
called  the  trochanter.  The  firet  large  joint  is  the  tliigh  or 
femur.  Then  comes  the  tibia,  usually  long  and  slender, 
then   the   tarsus   or   foot.     The   tarsus   has   several   joints 


-ant. 


Ms.  s. 


m.p. 


Fig.  4. — Grasshopper,  from  Side,  Showing  Main  Parts  of  Skeleton  of 

Typical  Insect. 

A.,  head;  e.e.,  compound  eye;  oc,  ocellus;  ani.,  antenna;  m.p.,  mouth-parts; 
B.,  thorax;  P.N.,  pronotum;  p.stl.,  prosternellum;  Ms.  s.,  mesosternum;  Mt.  s., 
metasternum;  Cx.  c,  coxal  cavity;  Ms.  es.,  meso-episternum;  Ms.  e.,  nieso- 
epimeron;  Mt.  es.,  nieta-episternuni;  Mt.  e.,  nieta-epimeron;  sp.,  spiracle;  C, 
abdomen;  (segments  numbered) ;  2".,  tergite,  S.,  sternite;  Ty.,  tympanum  or  ear; 
sp.,  spiracles. 


and  usually  ends  in  a  claw  of  one  or  two  parts.  Between 
the  two  parts  of  the  claw  there  is  often  fomid  a  small, 
pad-like  affair,  the  empodium. 

The  wings  are,  tj^pically,  flattened  sacks  with  very 
thin  walls,  strengthened  with  tubes  or  veins  between 
the  walls.  The  veins  form  important  characters  in  the 
study  of  some  groups  and  are  given  names.     The  margins 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


and  angles  of  the  wings  are   also  named.      Fig.  5  shows 
r,o      ?       a  typical  wing  with  the  names 
oi    the    vems,    margms    and 
angles. 

8.  The  Abdomen.  The 
abdomen  of  an  insect  consists 
of  several  segments  which 
are  generally  more  typically 
ring-like  than  in  the  rest  of 
the  body.  At  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen,  and  formed  by 
modifications  of  some  of  the 
segments,  is  the  egg-laying 
organ,  ovipositor,  of  the  fe- 
males and  the  external  gener- 
ative organs  of  the  males. 
These  may  be  so  retracted 
within  the  body  as  to  be  not 
prominent.  With  few  excep- 
tions, there  are  no  other 
appendages  on  the  abdomen 
of  adult  insects. 
Along  the  sides  of  the  segments  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen  are  small  holes,  called  spiracles.  They  are  the 
external  openings  of  the  breathing  tubes  which  will  be 
described  in  the  discussion  of  the  internal  anatomy. 

In  any  part  of  an  insect's  body,  where  two  plates  or 
segments  come  together  and  make  a  flexible  union,  the 
union  is  called  a  joint.  If  the  plates  have  grown  firmly 
together  the  line  of  union  is  a  suture. 

9.  The  Body  Wall.  The  body  wall  of  insects  is 
hardened  with  a  substance  called  chitin.  This  serves  to 
give  it   stability   of  form  and   protects  the  insect.     This 


Fig.    5.  — Wings    of    Butterfly 
Showing  Veins  and  Margins. 

1,  costal  margin;  2,  humeral  angle; 
3,  apical  angle  or  apex  ;  4,  outer 
margin;  5,  inner  angle;  5a,  anal 
angle  (hind  wing) ;  6,  inner  margin ; 
6a,  anal  margin  (hind  wing).  C,  costal 
vein;  Sc,  sub-costal  vein;  R.,  radial 
vein  (and branches) ;  M.,  median  vein; 
Cu.,  cubital  vein;    A.,  anal  veins. 


INSECT  STRUCTURES  9 

body  wall  is  not  only  the  covering  of  the  insect  but  also 
the  skeleton,  there  being  no  hardened  framework  inside 
the  body  as  is  the  case  with  the  higher  animals.  An  ex- 
ternal skeleton  like  this  is  an  exoskeleton.  From  this  exo- 
skeleton  there  are  inward  projections  which  serve  as  at- 
tachments for  the  muscles  and  other  internal  organs.  The 
possession  of  the  exoskeleton  enables  the  insects  to  keep 
their  form  after  death  and  rendei-s  preservatives  unneces- 
sary for  any  but  the  softest  bodied  species. 

10.  Internal  Organs.  Internally  insects  differ  widely 
from  the  higher  animals.  Yet  they  have  organs  and  sys- 
tems of  organs  constructed  for  the  performance  of  similar 
fmictions.  The  names  appHed  to  these  organs  are,  as  a 
rule,  the  same  as  for  the  organs  in  the  higher  animals 
having  similar  uses. 

The  systems  of  mternal  organs  in  an  insect  as  well  as 
in  other  animals,  are  grouped  accorchng  to  function.  The 
more  important  of  these  groups  are:  Digestive,  Circula- 
tory, Respiratory,  Nervous,  Reproductive  and  Muscular. 
The  Excretory  system  is  distinguished  by  some  writers. 
In  addition,  there  are  the  fat-bodies,  certain  connective 
tissues  and  special  organs. 

11.  The  Digestive  Tract.  Young  insects,  and  many 
adults,  have  the  interior  of  the  body  almost  completely 
taken  up  by  the  digestive  tract.  This  is,  primarily,  a  tube 
running  the  length  of  the  body.  As  the  tube  is  often 
longer  than  the  body  it  is  found  to  be  more  or  less  con- 
voluted. Different  parts  of  this  tube  are  modified  and 
are  given  names  according  to  their  uses.  The  anterior 
end  forms  the  mouth  and  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  cav- 
ity is  the  pharynx.  Mouth  and  pharynx  are  for  reception 
of  food  and  serve  the  same  purposes  as  in  higher  animals. 
SaUvary  glands  are  found  in  msects.     These  are  usually 


10 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


slender  tubes  opening  into  the  mouth  cavity.  The  phar- 
ynx narrows  rapidly  and  merges  into  the  oesophagus  or 
gullet.  This  corresponds  exactly  to  the  oesophagus  in 
vertebrates,  and  is  merely  a  passageway  for  the  food  on  its 
way  to  the  stomach.     In  the  thoracic  region  the  oesophagus 


Fig.  6. — Internal  Structure  of  a  Caterpillar. 

1.  Dorsal  view  with  upper  wall  removed,  showing  organs  in  plaee.     ph,  pharynx. 

2.  Inner  surface  of  upper  wall  showing  organs  of  the  circulatory  system.  A, 
aorta;    h,  heart  or  dorsal-vessel;     H.M.,  heart  muscles  or  "Wings  of  the  Heart." 

3.  Digestive  organs  removed,  exposing  organs  of  nervous  and  respiratory 
systems.  Br.,  brain  or  supra-oesophageal  ganglion;  s.g.,  salivary  gland;  gl., 
ganglion;  Tr.,  Trachea;  n.c,  nerve  cord;  or  central  nervous  system;  sp.,  spiracles; 
R.,  rectum  or  posterior  part  of  the  intestine. 

4.  Silk  gland  removed.  The  location  of  the  gland  may  be  seen  in  the  upper 
figure. 

5.  The  alimentary  canal,  removed,  oes.,  QSsophagus  ;  M.T.,  Malpighian 
tubules;  Mid-int.,  mid-intestine  From  photographs  of  an  "  Azoux  model  "  of 
the  silk-worm. 


widens  out  into  a  pouch-like  structure  called  the  crop 
which  is  followed  by  the  proventriculus.  Following  the 
proventriculus  is  the  stomach  proper  or  ventriculus.  Here 
the  food  is   digested,   much  of   the   digestive   fluid   being 


INSECT  STRUCTURES 


11 


secreted  by  the  glandular  walls  of  the  stomach.  Most 
insects  have  several  pouches  opening  into  the  stomach 
near  its  union  with  the  proventriculus  and  pouring  into 
it  some  of  the  digestive  juices.  After  the  stomach  comes 
the  intestine.  In  some  forms  it  is  merely 
a  straight  tube,  but  in  others  it  is  very- 
much  curved  and  convoluted.  Gene- 
rally it  is  divided  into  more  or  less 
distinct  regions  which  are  termed  the 
mid-intestine,  the  ileum,  the  colon,  and 
the  rectum.  Some  absorption  takes  place 
through  the  walls  of  the  mid-intestine, 
but  this  process  is  started  and  largely 
completed  in  the  stomach.  At  the  point 
of  union  between  the  intestine  and  the 
stomach  arise  a  great  number  of  very 
fine,  convoluted  tubes.  These  are  the 
kidney-tubules  or  Malpighian  tubes.  They 
are  supposed  to  function  as  kidneys  and 
to  be  excretory.  They,  with  the  intes- 
tine, form  the  excretory  system,  such  as 
it  is,  of  insects. 

12.  The  Circulatory  System.  The 
circulatory  system  differs  greatly  from 
that  of  vertebrates.  There  is  a  so-called 
heart  which  consists  of  a  long  tube 
lying  just  beneath  the  dorsal  wall 
or  back  of  the  insect.  The  front  end  of  this  tube 
is  called  the  aorta  and  is  the  only  blood  vessel  in 
the  body.  Blood  is  drawn  into  the  heart  from  the 
body  cavity,  where  it  fills  all  space  not  taken  up  by 
the  organs,  through  valves  along  the  side  of  the  heart. 
A    system    of    muscles    causes    an    alternate    contraction 


Fig.  7. — Digestive 
System  of  an 
Insect. 

ph.,  pharynx;  oe., 
oesophagus;  s.g.,  sali- 
vary gland;  g.c,  gastric 
coeca;  g.,  gizzard  or 
pro-ventriculus  ;  St., 
stomach  or  ventric- 
ulus;  m.p.,  Malpighian 
tubules;  f.i. ,  fore- 
intestine;  m.i.,  mid- 
intestine;  h.i.,  hind- 
intestine;    a.,  anus. 


12  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  expansion  in  the  heart  by  means  of  which  the  blood 
is  forced  forward  through  the  aorta  and  a  sluggish  cir- 
culation is  kept  up.  The  blood  bathes  all  the  tissues  of 
the  body  and  carries  food  to  them.  This  is  its  sole  func- 
tion except  that  it  may  take  up  some  of  the  waste  prod- 
ucts. These  are,  in  turn,  taken  from  the  blood  by  the 
kidney-tubules  and  carried  out  of  the  body  through  the 
intestine.  The  blood  does  not  carry  oxygen  to  the  tissues 
as  it  does  in  the  vertebrates.  For  this  reason  the  slow 
circulation  found  in  insects  suffices,  even  for  those  forms 
that  are  most  active,  where  it  would  not  do  for  the  active 
vertebrates. 

13.  Respiratory  System.  Respiration  is  the  function 
of  insects  which  is  most  different  from  the  same  function 
in  other  animals.  The  respiratory  system  consists  of 
tubes,  opening  through  holes  in  the  sides  of  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  segments,  and  branching  and  subdividing 
into  tubes  that  ramify  throughout  the  body  after  the 
fashion  of  capillaries.  These  carry  the  oxygen  to  all  the 
tissues  and  from  them  carry  off  the  carbon-dioxide  and 
other  gaseous  wastes.  The  breathing  tubes  are  called 
trachece,  and  their  external  openings  spiracles.  There 
are  generally  large  tracheal  tubes  along  each  side  of  the 
body  and  branches  are  given  off  in  each  segment.  The 
small  tracheal  tubes  end  in  thin  walled  sacks  in  the  tis- 
sues and  through  these  the  gases  are  exchanged  by  os- 
mosis. The  blood  receives  only  such  oxygen  as  is  re- 
quired for  its  own  purification.  The  air  is  forced  from  the 
trachese  by  muscular  contraction.  The  tracheal  tubes 
themselves  are  lined  with  elastic  coiled  threads  and  when 
the  pressure  from  this  contraction  is  relieved  the  elasticity 
of  the  walls  causes  the  tubes  to  regain  their  normal  shape, 
thus  drawing  more  air  into  the  body. 


INSECT  STRUCTURES  13 

14.  Nervous  System.  The  central  nervous  system 
consists  of  two  nerve  cords  running  the  length  of  the  body 
and  resting  on  the  ventral  or  lower  wall.  Typically,  there 
is  an  enlargement  of  these  cords  in  each  segment.  These 
enlargements  are  called  ganglia.  Each  ganglion  gives  off 
nerves  which  supply  the  motor  impulses  and  receive  the 
sensations  for  that  segment.  In  the  head  the  two  cords 
separate,  one  running  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus. 
Above  the  oesophagus  they  unite  again  and  form  what  is 
usually  the  largest  ganglion  of  the  body  and  is  called  the 
brain.  From  this  ganglion  nerve  fibers  go  to  the  com- 
poimd  eyes,  the  ocelli  and  the  antennae  and  the  labrum. 
There  is  a  separate  fiber  for  each  facet  of  the  compound 
eyes  which,  as  we  have  seen,  might  require  as  high  as 
fifty  thousand  for  each  compound  eye  and  this  will  ex- 
plain the  larger  size  of  the  ganglion.  There  is,  in  the 
head,  a  second  ganghon  below  the  oesophagus  which  ener- 
vates the  mouth-parts.  This  is  the  suh-cesophageal  gan- 
glion while  the  so-called  brain  is  the  supra-oesophageal 
ganglion.  From  the  latter  arises  also  the  sympathetic 
nervous  sj^stem  which  consists  of  a  few  fibers  running  pos- 
teriorly along  the  top  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  carry- 
ing the  impulses  incident  to  digestion. 

15.  Reproductive  System.  The  reproductive  system  is 
similar  in  its  organization  to  that  of  the  vertebrate  ani- 
mals. It  consists  primarily  of  two  sets  of  fine  tubes  com- 
municating with  the  outside  of  the  body  through  passages 
at  first  distinct  but  later  united.  In  the  females  each  one 
of  these  sets  of  tubes  forms  what  is  called  an  ovary.  Eggs 
develop  in  each  tube  and,  when  fully  grown,  pass  out  into 
the  oviduct,  a  passageway  into  which  all  the  egg-tubes 
open.  From  the  oviduct,  the  egg  is  carried  to  the  vagina, 
which  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  oviducts  from  both 


14  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

ovaries  and  which  leads  to  the  ovipositor  or  external  ter- 
mination of  the  female  reproductive  organs.  Somewhere 
in  the  vagina  is  a  sort  of  sac  or  pouch  in  which  the  fer- 
tilizing element,  received  from  the  males  during  copulation, 
is  stored.  This  sac  is  the  spermatheca.  As  the  egg  passes 
over  the  opening  of  the  spermatheca  it  receives,  through 
minute  holes  in  one  end,  called  the  micropyle,  the  sperm 
cells  by  which  it  is  fertilized.  Parthenogenetic  individuals 
lack  the  spermatheca. 

The  reproductive  organs  of  the  male  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  female  but  are  much  smaller  because  the 
sperm  cells  are  very  much  smaller  than  the  ova  or  egg 
cells.  The  collections  of  tubes  forming,  in  the  females,  the 
ovaries,  are  called,  in  the  males,  testes.  In  these  the  sperm 
cells  are  formed.  The  seminal  tubes,  as  the  separate  ele- 
ments of  the  testicle  are  called,  open  into  a  duct  called  the 
vas  deferens.  The  two  vasa  deferentia  unite  to  form  the 
ejaculatory  duct  paralleling  the  vagina  as  the  vasa  defer- 
entia parallel  the  oviducts.  There  is  in  the  walls  of  this 
duct,  usually,  a  pouch  formed  by  the  invagination  of  the 
wall  and  used  for  the  storage  of  the  seminal  fluid  until 
needed.  This  is  named  the  seminal  vesicle  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  spermatheca  in  the  female.  The  external 
organ  through  which  the  male  reproductive  organs  open 
is  the  penis.  There  may  be  specially  developed  claspers  or 
other  structures  used  in  copulation.  They  are  homologous 
with  the  modifications  of  the  ovipositor  for  boring,  etc. 

Ovipositors  show  the  most  varied  forms.  They  are 
adapted  for  depositing  the  eggs  in  every  possible  situation. 
The  eggs,  too,  are  of  many  different  kinds.  Stinging 
organs  are  modifications  of  the  ovipositor  and  usually  are 
connected  with  specially  developed  poison  sacs  which  add 
to  their  efficiency.     They  are  adapted  for  two  purposes, 


INSECT  STRUCTURES  15 

protection  and   overcoming  other  insects  which  serve  as 
food  for  the  larvae. 

16.  The  Muscular  System.  Insects  have  a  wonder- 
fully developed  system  of  muscles.  As  many  as  two 
thousand  separate  muscles  have  been  identified  in  certain 
larv2e.  The  muscle  tissue  is  soft  and  watery  in  appear- 
ance m  the  living  insect  and  is  made  up  of  striated  fibers 
ending  in  tendon-like  cords  which  are  attached  to  the  dif- 
ferent organs  and  to  the  hardened  processes  projecting  in- 
ward from  the  skeleton  for  this  purpose.  The  strength 
of  these  muscles  seems  to  be  much  greater  in  proportion 
to  their  size  than  is  the  case  in  other  animals  and  many 
wonderful  tales  are  told  of  the  muscular  power  of  insects. 
Some  of  these  may  easily  be  verified  by  original  observa- 
tion. 

17.  The  Fat-Body.  Much  of  the  space  in  the  body 
cavity  of  some  forms  of  insects  is  taken  up  by  the  fat- 
hody.  This  is  tissue  similar  to  the  fatty  tissue  of  the  ver- 
tebrates and  serves  much  the  same  purposes,  namely, 
storage  of  food  and,  to  a  degree,  support  for  the  more  del- 
icate organs.  The  fat-body  consists  of  cells  of  rather  large 
size,  arranged  in  masses  wliich  are  usually  distinct  in  the 
different  segments. 

18.  Special  Organs  and  Adaptations.  There  are  spe- 
ciahzations,  external  and  internal,  of  the  most  varied  na- 
ture, which  are  usually  directly  connected  with  the  func- 
tions of  one  or  other  of  the  above-mentioned  systems  of 
organs.  Among  these  there  are  few  that  are  more  striking 
than  those  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  These  are  fre- 
quently adaptations  for  an  aquatic  habitat.  The  most 
simple  of  the  arrangements  by  means  of  which  an  insect 
is  enabled  to  obtain  air  while  beneath  the  surface  is  that 
by  means  of  which  the  msect  can  carry  a  bubble  of  air 


16  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

down  with  itself  and  remain  submerged  until  the  supply 
is  exhausted.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by  means  of 
hairs  on  the  under  side  of  the  body  which  retain  the  air 
bubble.  The  air  supply  is  sometimes  imprisoned  under- 
neath the  wings.  Next  to  this  in  simplicity  is  the  tube 
which  reaches  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and  into  which 
the  tracheae  open.  The  insect  can  remain  under  water 
indefinitely  at  the  depth  which  corresponds  to  the  length 
of  this  tube.  Mosquito  larvse  and  pupae  and  water- 
scorpions  are  so  equipped. 

Insects  that  are  most  truly  aquatic  are  provided  with 
tracheal  gills,  structures  which  can  take  up  from  the 
water  the  oxygen  necessaiy  for  the  insect.  These  dif- 
fer from  the  true  gills  of  fish  and  crayfishes  in  that  the 
oxygen  thus  secured  is  carried  to  the  tissues  through 
tracheal  systems  exactly  similar  to  those  of  ordinary  in- 
sects while  in  the  case  of  the  true  gills  the  blood  is  carried 
to  the  gills  as  it  would  be  to  lungs. 

Tracheal  gills  show  many  forms.  Dragon-fly  nymphs 
have  gills  that  consist  of  a  large  number  of  tracheal  tubes 
in  the  lining  of  the  rectum.  Water  is  drawn  into  this,  the 
air  taken  up  and  the  water  expelled,  often  with  some  force 
so  that  it  serves  generally  as  a  means  of  propulsion. 
Damsel  fly  nymphs  have  gills  in  the  leaf-like  plates  at  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen.  Other  forms,  notably  the  hel- 
gramite  or  larva  of  Corydalis,  have  tracheal  gills  consist- 
ing of  tufts  of  hair-hke  tracheae  projecting  from  the  body, 
the  location  varying  with  the  insect. 

Organs  of  special  sense  have  many  special  structures. 
The  sense  of  feeling  is  often  dependent  upon  hairs  con- 
necting with  nerve  fibers  at  different  places  on  the  body. 
The  antennae  are,  primarily,  the  main  organs  of  feeling. 
The  sense  of  taste  has  organs  located  partly  within  the 


INSECT  STRUCTURES  17 

mouth  as  with  the  vertebrates,  and  frequently  accom- 
panied by  specialized  hairs  which  may  be  found  on  the 
palpi,  outside  the  mouth  cavity.  The  hypopharynx  is  the 
main  organ  for  the  sense  of  taste. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  known  to  be  located  in  the  an- 
tennae of  many  species.  In  others  its  organs  are  not  cer- 
tainly identified.  Hearing  organs  occur  in  highly  unex- 
pected places.  Male  mosquitoes  hear  with  the  antennae. 
An  ear  drum  or  tympanum  is  located  on  the  first  segment 
of  the  abdomen  in  grasshoppers,  while  it  is  found  on  the 
tibia  of  some  crickets.  In  some  insects  the  location  of 
the  sense  of  hearing  is  not  known,  but  it  seems  certain 
that  all  forms  are  able  to  perceive  sound.  Of  all  the 
special  senses  smell  is  usually  most  highly  developed. 

Many  forms  of  body  covering  are  noted.  These  are 
largely  protective.  The  body  hairs  of  some  insects  are  con- 
nected with  poison  glands  or  are  barbed  or  covered  with 
some  ii'ritating  substance.  The  larvae  of  the  Brown-tail 
moth  have  barbed  hairs  which  cause  an  itch  or  rash  on 
the  human  skin  and  so  render  them  a  great  nuisance. 

Scent  glands  are  often  present.  These  may  be  pro- 
tective or  they  may  serve  to  attract  the  mates.  The 
latter  is  the  case  in  certain  moths  while  in  many  bugs 
and  some  beetles  and  butterflies  the  scents  secreted  pro- 
tect from  natural  enemies  by  making  the  insects  dis- 
tasteful. 

A  special  structure  of  much  interest  is  the  silk-pro- 
ducing apparatus.  This  consists  of  a  pair  of  silk  glands 
opening  through  little  holes  just  beneath  the  mouth. 
These  glands  resemble  the  salivaiy  glands  but  are  larger. 
Other  glands  secrete  such  substances  as  the  honey-dew 
of  Aphids  and  related  insects,  the  wax  covering  of  the 
scale  insects  and  Lac,  also  a  product  of  scale  insects. 


18  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Light-produciiig  or  luminescent  insects  have  special 
structures  for  the  production  of  light  which  are  not  well 
understood.  The  light  is  thought  to  be  the  result  of  a 
very  finely  developed  process  of  oxidation  whereby  prac- 
tically all  the  energy  from  the  oxidation  is  made  into  Ught 
instead  of  into  heat.  These  structures  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  respiratory  system. 

External  projections  from  the  skeleton  are  frequent  and 
do  not  usually  appear  to  serve  any  useful  purpose.  They 
may  be  either  ornamental  or  merely  vestiges  of  structures 
that  were,  formerly,  of  use  to  the  species. 


CHAPTER  III 

mSECTS  AND   THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES 

The  Branch  Arthropoda  includes,  besides  insects,  sev- 
eral related  groups  which  are  usually  considered  with  the 
insects  and  which  should  be  familiar  to  the  student  of 
insects  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  if  for  no  other 
reason. 

19.  Crustacea.  The  Crustacea  are  forms  wliich  are 
usually  aquatic,  breathe  by  means  of  true  gills  as  do  the 
fishes,  and  have  at  least  five  pairs  of  jointed  legs,  the 
anterior  or  front  pair,  m  most  common  forms,  bearing 
pincer-like  claws  and  being  used  as  weapons  rather  than 
as  feet.  Their  bodies  are  made  up  of  only  two  main  parts 
as  the  head  and  the  thorax  are  grown  together  and  form 
what  is  known  as  a  cephalothorax. 

OtU"  best  known  Crustaceans  are  the  crayfish,  or  "craw- 
fish," the  lobster,  crabs,  shrimps  and  the  terrestrial  form 
called  sow-bug  or  pill-bug.  Their  economic  unportance  is 
not  great.  Sow-bugs  injure  greenhouse  crops  at  times  and 
in  the  Southern  States  the  crayfish  is  mjiu"ious  to  agri 
culture  in  the  marshy  districts.  These  injuries  are  coun- 
terbalanced b}'  the  importance  of  the  class  as  food  for  man. 
Lobsters  and  crabs  are  highly  prized  in  America  while 
crayfish  and  shrimps  are  also  used  for  food  and  many  forms 
are  important  as  food  for  fishes. 

20.  Myriapoda.  Myriapoda  are  the  Arthropods  with 
the  greatest  number  of  feet.     They  are  commonly  called 

19 


20 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


"hundred-legged   worms"   and    '' thousand-legged   worms" 
or  centipedes  and  millipedes. 

The  centipedes  have  one  pair  of  legs  to  each  segment, 

are  generally  flattened 
and  have  the  legs  at- 
tached near  the  edges 
of  the  segments.  Mil- 
lipedes are  oval  or  cylin- 
drical, have  two  pairs  of 
legs  per  segment  and 
have  these  attached  near 
the  median  line  of  the 
segments  on  the  under 
side.  Both  forms  have 
one  pair  of  antennae  and 
have  bodies  composed  of 
head  and  an  unspecial- 
ized  chain  of  segments 
representing  thorax  and 
abdomen, 

Myriapoda  are  of 
slight  economic  impor- 
tance. Millipedes  some- 
times feed  on  vegetation 
extensively  enough  to 
be  injurious,  while  cen- 
tipedes are  predaceous 
and  feed  mostly  upon 
insects.  Some  forms  of 
centipedes,  especially  in 
tropical  and  subtropical 
countries,  are  provided  with  poison  glands  and  may  injure 
man  seriously  by  their  bites. 


Fig.  8. — Some  Relatives  of  Insects. 
Reduced. 

a,  the  tailed  Whip-scorpion  (class  Arach- 
nida,  order  Pedipalpi)  ;  b,  Harvestnian 
(Arachnida,  Phalangidea) ;  c.  Spider  (Arach' 
nida,  Araneida)  ;  d,  Centipede  (Myriapoda, 
Chilopoda) ;  e,  Sow-bug  or  Pill-bug  (Crustacea) ; 
/,  Millipede  (Myriapoda,  Chilognatha)  ;  g, 
Cray-fish  (Crustacea). 


INSECTS  AND  THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES 


21 


21.  Arachnida.  Arachnida  is  the  most  important  of  the 
Arthropod  classes  excepting  the  insects.  The  class  includes 
Spiders,  Mites  and  Ticks, 
Harvestmen  or  "daddy-long- 
legs," Scorpions  and  many 
other  less  common  forms. 

Arachnids  have  four  pairs 
of  legs,  no  antennae  and  only 
two  body  regions,  the  head 
and  thorax  being  combined 
as  in  the  Crustacea.  They 
are  typically  land  animals. 

The  Spiders  (order  Ara~ 
neida)  spin  webs  of  silk  which     <-         ^-^ss  11111.1 jiiiimiIMiiii  a 

has  been  used  commercially    Fig.  9.-A  Tarantula  {Arachnida, 
to    a    very     limited    extent.         Araneida).     Greatly  reduced. 
They   are   predaceous    and   feed    on    insects.     Except   for 
occasional  bites  which  they  inflict  upon 
man,   they  may  be   considered   bene- 
ficial. 

Mites  and  Ticks  (Acarina)  are  of 
considerable  importance.  Mites  are 
usually  very  small  and  feed  on  both 
plants  and  animals.  They  cause  gall- 
like growths  in  plant  tissues  and  may 
do  great  damage.  The  pear-leaf  blis- 
ter-mite is  possibly  the  most  important 
example  in  the  eastern  United  States. 
Many  mites  are  parasites  on  domes- 
tic animals.  The  mites  on  poultry 
are  the  best  known  forms  with  this 
habit.  Others  cause  sheep-scab*  and  other  diseases  of 
*  See  page  203    Part  II. 


Fig.  10. — Scorpion 
(Class  Arachnida, 
order  Scorpionida). 


22 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  11. — The  Pear-leaf  Blister-mite 
(Arachnida,  Acarina).  Highly  mag- 
nified.    After  Parrott, 


domestic  animals.  Ticks,  which  are  merely  large  mites, 
are  external  parasites  on  many  animals.  One  species,  the 
Texas-fever  Tick,  carries  the  organism  causing  Texas  fever 

in  cattle  from  animal 
to    animal   and   is    a 
serious    hindrance   to 
the    stock-raising    in- 
dustry in  the  Southern 
States.     Other  forms 
transmit    the    Rocky 
Mountain    Spotted- 
fever,   which  is  a  serious,  and  often  fatal,  disease  of  man. 
Still   others   have    similar   and    equally   serious    habits  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.     (See  page  209.) 
Some   forms   of  mites  are  beneficial 
as   parasites   of   injurious  insects. 

Harvestmen  are  the  long-legged  forms 
commonly  known  as  '' daddy-long-legs  " 
and  found  in  the  woods  and  fields  all 
over  the  country.  Their  economic  im- 
portance is  extremely  slight. 

Scorpions  are  found  in  the  more 
southern  portions  of  the  United  States, 
but  occur  as  far  north  as  northern  Kansas.  They  have 
the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen  narrowed  into  a  tail- 
like appendage  terminated  with  a  sting  with  which  they 
can  inflict  more  or  less  painful  wounds. 

Other  Arachnids  are  Pseudo-scorpions,  found  in  moist 
situations,  frequently  under  bark,  small  in  size  and  very 
inconspicuous;  Jointed-spiders,iound  only  in  the  Southwest, 
and  a  few  others  which  are  still  more  rare  in  our  fauna. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  take  up  here  the  further  classi- 
fication of  the  Arthropods,  other  than  insects,  into  orders 


Fig.  12.— a  Tick 
(Class  A  rack  n  ida , 
order  Acarina). 
Enlarged. 


INSECTS   AND  THEIR  NEAR  RELATIVES  23 

and  families,  although  the  differences  between  the  members 
of  the  several  classes  are  often  very  striking. 

22.  Hexapoda.  The  class  Hexapoda,  or  the  insects,  is 
by  far  the  most  important  group  in  the  branch,  and  as  it 
is  the  one  which  claims  the  major  part  of  our  atten- 
tion, a  discussion  of  the  characters  upon  which  their 
arrangement  into  orders  and  families  is  based  is  here 
given. 

The  grouping  of  insects  into  orders  is  based  largely 
upon  variations  in  three  characters  namely,  those  of  the 
wings,  of  the  mouth  parts  and  of  the  metamorphosis.  A 
combination  of  the  description  of  the  wings,  the  type  of 
mouth  and  the  nature  of  the  development,  whether  direct 
or  indirect,  will  place  any  insect  in  its  proper  order. 
Tables  for  the  identification  of  adult  insects  may  employ 
certain  other  characters  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
nature  of  the  transformations  cannot  be  determined  from 
a  specimen  in  the  cabinet. 

Families  are  identified  by  means  of  characters  that 
vary  within  each  order.  In  some  cases  the  only  characters 
that  can  be  used  appear  to  be  those  of  the  wing-venation. 
Since  these  present  difficulties  that  are  too  great  for  the 
beginner  they  will  be  omitted.  In  other  orders,  families 
are  distinguished  by  characters  of  the  antennae,  of  the 
tarsi  and  of  various  parts  of  the  head  and  thorax.  Greater 
refinements  of  these  same  characters  serve  to  define  the 
genera  and  to  some  extent  the  various  species.  Species 
may  be  separated  in  many  cases  by  differences  in  color 
and  size,  these  characters  being  not  available  for  use  in 
the  case  of  the  larger  groups  because  the  color  and  size  in  a 
genus,  for  instance,  may  vary  as  greatly  as  it  does  in  the 
entire  family.  No  attempt  is  made  here  to  separate  the 
insects   into    their    natural    groupings  lower  than  families 


24  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  in  many  cases  the  orders  will  not  even  be  divided 
into  the  families. 

The  number  of  orders  of  insects  recognized  by  the 
various  authorities  ranges  from  seven,  in  the  earlier  class- 
ifications, to  over  twenty,  in  the  latest  works.  We  recog- 
nize here  twenty,  that  number  being  chosen  because  it 
seems  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  present  occasion  better  than 
the  greater  number  of  the  most  modern  authorities,  even 
though  the  latter  schemes  are  doubtless  much  more  nearly 
scientifically  correct.  The  names  employed  are  those  in 
most  general  use.  The  table  appended  will  enable  the 
student  to  identify  to  the  order  any  of  the  common  insects. 

Of  the  twenty  orders  here  mentioned,  six  may  be  con- 
sidered as  major  orders,  the  others  being  less  important 
because  of  fewer  species  and  less  economic  importance. 
The  major  groups  are  the  Orthoptera,  the  Hemiptera,  the 
Lepidoptera,  the  Coleoptera,  the  Diptera  and  the  Hymen- 
optera.  Any  attempt  to  rank  these  according  to  their 
degree  of  importance  would  be  futile,  although  the  Cole- 
optera includes  the  greatest  number  of  species. 

The  complete  Hst  of  orders  is  as  follows: 

Thysanura  Orthoptera 

Ephemerida  Hemiptera 

Odonata  Neuroptera 

Plecoptera  Mecoptera 

Isoptera  Trichoptera 

Corrodentia  Siphonaptera 

Mallophaga  Lepidoptera 

Euplexoptera  Coleoptera 

Siphunculata  Diptera 

Physopoda  Hymenoptera 


INSECTS  AND  THEIR  NEAR    RELATIVES  25 


Table  for  Separating  the  Orders  of  Insects 

A.  Wingless  Insects. 

B.  With  biting  mouth-parts. 

C.  Mouth-parts  poorly  developed.     Thysanura. 
CC.  Mouth-parts  well  developed. 

D.  Parasitic    on    warm-blooded    animals.      Bird  lice. 
Mallophaga. 
DD.  Not  parasitic. 

E.  Ant-like  in  general  appearance. 

F.  White,     soft    bodied,    colonial.      Termites. 

Isoptera. 
FF.  Darker  in  color,  bodies  firm,  in  colonies  or 
soUtary.  Ants  and  some  wasps — Hymenoptera. 
EE.  Not  ant-like  in  form. 
F.  Very  small,   light   in   color,   frequenting   old 
books  and  dry  vegetable  matter.    Book  lice. 
Corrodentia. 
FF.  Larger  species  not  occurring  as  above. 

G.  Head   prolonged  into  a    beak.     Boreus. 
Mecoptera. 
GG.  Head  not  prolonged  into  beak. 

H.  Hind  legs  fitted  for  jumping.     Wing- 
less grasshoppers,  etc.     Orthoptera. 
HH.  Hind  legs  not  fitted  for  jumping. 

I.  Bodies    and    legs    very    long    and 
slender. 
Walking  sticks.     Orthoptera: 
II.  Bodies  not  elongated. 

J.  Bodies  flattened.     Lobes  at   tip 
of  abdomen.     Roaches.    Orthop- 
tera. 
JJ.  Bodies  variable  but  without  lobes 
at  tip  of  abdomen.     Coleoptera. 
BB.  With  sucking  mouth-parts. 

C.  Bodies  covered  with  scale-like  hairs.    Wingless  moths. 
Lepidoptera. 
CC.  Bodies  not  covered  with  hairs. 


26  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

D,  Parasitic  upon  man  or  warm-blooded  animals. 

E.  Hind  legs  fitted  for  jumping.     Fleas.    Siphonap- 
tera. 
EE.  Hind  legs  not  fitted  for  jumping. 

F.  Beak,  fleshy,   unjointed.     True  lice.    Siphun- 
culata. 
FF.  Beak  jointed. 

G.  Tick-like    forms,    parasitic.     Sheep    tick, 
etc.     Diptera. 
GG.  Not  tick-like.     Bedbugs.    Hemiptera. 
DD.  Not    parasitic;     generally    found    on    living    plants. 
Plant   lice,   scale   insects,    etc.     Hemiptera    (Homop- 
tera) . 
AA.  Winged  insects. 

B.  With  two  wings. 

C.  With  sucking  mouth-parts.     Diptera. 
CC.  Mouth-parts  not  for  sucking. 
D.  Rudimentary  mouth-parts. 

E.  Size    almost     microscopic,     halteres     present. 
Males  of  Coccidoe.     Hemiptera. 
EE.  Size  larger,  no  halteres.     Ephemerida. 
DD.  Biting  mouth-parts. 

E.  Wings  hard  and  horny.    Coleoptera. 
EE.  Wings  flexible,  many  veins.    Orthoptera. 
BB.  With  four  wings. 

C.  Mouth-parts  for  sucking. 

D.  Wings    covered    with    scale-like   hairs.     Lepidop- 
tera. 
DD.  Wings  not  covered  with  scale-like  hairs.     Hem- 
iptera. 
CC.  Mouth-parts  not  for  sucking. 
D.  Wings  equal. 

E.  Bodies  very  long  and  slender.     Wings  narrow. 
F    Antennse  inconspicuous.     Dragon-flies,  etc. 
Odoyiata. 
FF.  Antennse  prominent.    Ant-lions,  etc.    Neu- 

roptera. 
EE.  Bodies  shorter. 

F.  Wings  with  few  veins. 


INSECTS  AND  THEIR   NEAR  RELATIVES  27 

G.  Wings  fringed  with  long  hairs.  Size 
usually  less  than  one-eighth  inch  in 
length.  Mouth-parts  indeterminate  in 
type.  Thrips.  P/rysopoda. 
GG.  Wings  without  fringes.  Very  easily 
broken  off  or  shed  by  the  insect.  Ter- 
mites. Isoptera. 
FF.  Wing  veins  more  numerous. 

G.  Finely  netted  ^vings.     Neuroptera. 
GG.  Wings   with   fewer   cross   veins.     Head 
prolonged  into  a  beak.     Scorpion-flies, 
etc.     Mecoptera. 
DD.  Wings  unequal  in  size. 

F.  Wings  entirely  membranous. 

G.  Front    wings    longer    than    the    liind 
wings. 

H.  Wings    finely    netted.        Abdomen 
with  long  tail-like  filaments.     Eph- 
emerida. 
HH.  Wings  with  fewer  cross  veins. 

I.  Hind    tarsi    with    two    or    three 
segments.     Psocids.    Corrodentia. 
II.  Hind  tarsi  with  four  or  five  seg- 
ments.    Hymenoptera. 
GG.  Hind  wings  broader  than  front  wings. 
H.  Wing    veins    with    hair-like    scales. 
Trichoptera. 
HH.  Wings   without   scales   along  veins. 
Hind  A\angs  folded.     Plecoptera. 
FF.  Front  wings  leathery  or  hardened. 

G.  Front  wings  leathery  but  flexible  and 
usually  partially  transparent.   Orthoptera. 
GG.  Front  wings  hardened,  seldom  flexible. 
Coleoptera. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSECTS 

23.  Metamorphosis.  The  changes  which  an  insect 
undergoes  during  its  progress  from  the  newly  hatched 
form  to  the  adult  vary  in  degrees  of  complexity  and  are 
commonly  grouped  into  two  types.  The  more  simple  type 
is  spoken  of  as  incomplete  metamorphosis  or  direct  develop- 
ment. The  word  metamorphosis  signifies  change  in  form. 
Therefore,  the  correct  inference  is  that  the  change  in  form 
in  this  type  of  development  is  not  complete. 

The  second  and  more  complex  type  of  development  is 
that  known  as  complete  metamorphosis  or  indirect  develop- 
ment. In  this  case  there  is  a  complete  change  in  form  and 
appearance  between  the  earlier  stages  and  the  adult. 

24.  Direct  Development.  A  description  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  grasshopper  is  commonly  given  to  illustrate 
the  direct  type.  Here,  as  in  practically  all  insects,  the 
first  stage  is  the  egg.  From  the  egg  hatches  a  form  which 
may  easily  be  recognized  as  a  young  grasshopper,  even 
though  the  proportions  are  distorted  and  there  are  no 
wings.  The  form  just  hatched  is  known  in  this  case  as  a 
nymph,  and  the  same  term  is  applied  to  all  the  succeeding 
stages  of  the  insect  before  it  reaches  the  final  or  adult 
stage  and  becomes  what  is  called  an  imago. 

Each  succeeding  nymphal  stage  resembles  the  adult 
form  more  than  did  the  one  preceding  it.  In  one  of 
the  earHer  stages  the  wings  make  their  appearance  in 
the   form   of  small   pads   on   the   thorax.     These   become 

28 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSECTS 


29 


more  and  more  prominent  in  each  succeeding  stage,  but 
are  never  used  until  the  adult  stage.  The  possession  of 
power  of  flight  is  a  certain  proof  that  any  insect  is  an 
adult. 

The  different  n3anphal  stages  are  separated  or  limited 
by  moults  which  occm'  at  more  or  less  definite  intervals. 

These  moults  consist  ^ 

of  the  casting  of  the 
skins.  The  skin  of 
a  newly  hatched  or 
freshly  moulted  in- 
sect possesses  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  elas- 
ticity, but  does  not 
grow.  When  the 
growth  of  the  insect 
has  about  taken  up 
all  the  stretching 
power  of  the  skin, 
a  new  skin  forms 
beneath  the  old  one, 
the  old  one  bursts 
and  the  insect  makes 
its  way  out.  The  cast  skin  is  called  the  exuvia.  The  more 
striking  changes  in  the  appearance  which  occur  during  the 
course  of  development  come  with  these  moults.  The  final 
moult  Uberates  the  adult  form  which  does  not  moult  and 
does  not  grow.     Many  of  the  adults  do  not  even  feed 

25.  Indirect  Development.  Where  the  development  is 
indirect  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  process.  The 
form  which  is  hatched  from  the  egg  bears,  in  most  cases, 
not  the  sMghtest  resemblance  to  the  parent  form.  There 
would  be  no  reason  to  suspect  that  the  two  belonged  even 


Fig.  13. — Metamorphosis  of  a  Moth  {Samia 
cecropia),  showing  Larva,  Pupa,  Cocoon 
and  Adult.     Much  reduced. 


30 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


to  the  same  class  of  animals  and  the  young  must,  in 
each  case,  be  connected  with  their  parents  by  observa- 
tions of  their  Hfe  histories. 

The  familiar  form  illustrating  the  indirect  development 

is  the  common  house-fly 
or  any  butterfly.  Here 
the  newly  hatched  young 
is  worm-like  and  in  one 
case  entirely  footless 
and  more  or  less  helpless. 
These  young  are  called 
larvce.  The  larvae  grow 
and  moult  from  time  to 
time  as  do  nymphs,  but 
they  show  Uttle  change 
in  form.  Their  colors  may 
change  and  there  is  often 
some  change  in  the  cover- 
ing of  the  body. 

After  a  larva  has  com- 
pleted its  growth  it 
changes  into  an  inactive 
object  called  a  pupa. 
This  may  be  of  various 
forms.  It  may  be  naked 
and  exposed  or  enclosed 
in  some  sort  of  cocoon  or 
case  or  buried  in  the  earth. 
It  may  be  protected  by 
its  own  body  wall,  hard- 
less  oval,  shape, 
the  changes  between  the 
form     are     accomplished. 


Fig.  14. — Early  Stages  of  Insects. 
Reduced. 

1,  Helgrammite  or  Dobson-fly  larva 
(Neuroptera) ;  2,  Pupa  of  the  Spotted  Pelid- 
nota  (Scarabceidce) ;  3,  Cutworm  (Noctuidce) ; 
4,  Slug-caterpillar  (Eucleidoe) ;  5,  Corn  ear- 
worm  {NoctuidoB) ;  6,  Pupa  of  round-headed 
wood-borer  (Ceramhycidce);  7,  Chestnut 
worm  (Curculionidw);  8,  Larva  of  Rose- 
ehafcr  (Scarab (eidcE);  9,  Larva  of  Colorado 
potato-beetle  (Chrysomelidce) ;  10,  11,  Larvae 
of  Click-beetles  (Elateridae) ;  12,  Pupa  of 
Click-beetle;  13,  Larva  of  Flesh-fly  (.Mus- 
ciiia);  14,  Imported  Currant  Saw-fly  larva 
(Tenthredinidcr);  15,  Red-humped  Apple- 
caterpillar  (Notodontidw);  16,  Maggot  of 
Drone-fly  (S2/rp/ttd(E) ;  17,  Larva  oi  Papilio 
philenor  (Papilionidce) ;  18,  Giant  Root- 
borer  (fierambycida;). 

ened,  smooth,  and  of  a  more  or 

Within   the   pupa-case    all 
larval    form    and    the    adult 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSECTS 


3i 


Fig.     15. 


Typical   Pupa   of    a    Sphinx 
Moth. 


The  casting  of  the  pupal  skin  and  the  emergence  of  the 
adult  constitutes  the   final  moult  in  the  cycle  where  the 

development    is  indi-       

rect.  The  life  cycle  is 
completed  with  the 
laying  of  eggs  by  these 
adults. 

26.  The    Purpose 
of    Metamorphosis. 
The  purpose  of  meta- 
morphosis, especially  the    complete    type,  is  explained   as 
are  other  speciaHzations.      It  seems  to  be  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  insects  to  have  the  different  vital  functions 
performed  at 
different    pe- 
riods of    the 
Hfe  of  the  in- 
sects instead 
of  all  at  the 
same     time. 
The    larval 
stage  is  de- 
voted      to 
feeding  and 
growth      and 
the  storage  of 

food  material  for  the  adult  stage.  The  pupal  stage  is  solely 
for  change  in  form  and  structure  to  adapt  the  insect  for 
the  functions  of  the  adult  which  are  reproduction  and 
spread. 

There  are  intermediate  forms  of  metamorphosis.  In 
these  the  nymph  may  not  resemble  the  adult  even  to 
such    a    degree    that    it    may    be    recognized.      However, 


Fig.   16. — Larva  of  Imperial  Moth 


32 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


when   there   is   no   sharply   defined   resting  stage,  as   the 
pupal  stage,   the   development   is  still  said  to  be  direct. 


Fig.  17. — Chrysalids  of  Butterflies. 

1,  2,  PapilionidcB]    3,  Pieridce;    4,  N ymphalidm.^ 

In  almost  all  cases  where  the  development  is  direct  the 
young    forms    have    compound   eyes,   but  larvae,  properly 


Fig.  18. — Larvae  of  the  House-fly.     Enlarged. 

speaking,  never  have  more  than  ocelli  and  are  often  en- 
tirely blind.  This  will  ordinarily  serve  as  a  distinctive 
point  in  cases  of  doubt. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSECTS 


33 


Larvce   are    of    the    most    varied    forms.     Butterfly    or 
moth  larvae  are  called  caterpillars  and  have  false  legs  on 


M 


Fig.  19. — Pupae  of  the  House-fly.     Slightly  enlarged. 

the  abdomen.  Fly  larvae,  larvae  of  snout-beetles  and  most 
Hymenopterous  larvae  are  footless.  Ordinary  beetle  larvae 
have  usually  the  three  pairs  of  true  legs. 


Fig.  20. — Larvse  of  the  Mourning-cloak  Butterfly. 

Many  larvae  will  not  be  identified,  even  to  the  order, 
by  the  beginning  student,  but  close  observation  will  soon 
enable  one  to  recognize  the  more  common  forms. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  LOWER  ORDERS 

Under  the  general  heading  of  the  lower  orders  may  be 
considered  all  the  less  important  forms  which  do  not  have 
apparently  close  relationships.  They  are  widely  different 
in  structure  and  habits  and  are  so  grouped  for  the  sake 
of  convenience  only. 

27.  Thysanura.  Thysanura  are  the  most  primitive  of 
insects.  They  have  no  wings  and  their  mouth-parts  are 
of  very  rudimentary  nature,  adapted  only  for  chewing  soft 
substances  or  for  feeding  superficially  on  dried  matter. 
They  have  no  compound  eyes.  On  the  tip  of  the  ab- 
domen are  appendages  of  some  sort,  either  filaments  or 
modifications  of  the  same  which  enable  the  insects  to 
leap  considerable  distances.  Those  with  the  filaments  are 
known  as  Bristle-tails')tf^hi\e  the  others  are  called  Spring- 
tails.  They  may  have,  also,  rudimentary  appendages  on 
nearly  all  the  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  most  com- 
mon of  the  bristle-tails  is  called  the  Fish-moth  or  silver- 
fish.  (Fig.  21,  1.)  It  is  found  in  houses,  in  the  pantries  or 
bathrooms  or  in  rooms  where  the  wall  paper  is  loose. 
It  feeds  on  starchy  material  such  as  the  dried  paste  be- 
neath the  paper  and  on  some  foods,  and  may  be  listed 
as  a  minor  household  pest.  This  insect  is  of  a  silvery 
color  and  is  covered  with  minute  scales. 

Several  spring-tails  are  common,  but,  on  account  of 
their  small  size,  are  not  noticed.  One  of  these  may  be 
found,   especially  in  the  early  spring,   beneath  the  loose 

34 


THE  LOWER  ORDERS 


35 


1 


I       ^ 


» 


» 


I 


4. 


bark  scales  of  old  apple  trees  where  there  is  plenty  of 
moisture.  Others  may  be  found  during  the  summer  on  de- 
caying    wood. 

Still   others    are      '  'WM 

classed  as  injur- 
ious and  attack 
certain  of  our 
garden  crops. 
Their  injury  is 
rarely  serious. 
One  form,  called 
the  Snow- flea,  is 
found  in  the 
early  spring  on 
the  surface  of 
patches  of  snow. 
28.  Corro- 
dentia.  Certain 
small  insects 
called  Book  lice 
and  Psocids  form 
this  order,  which 
is  of  slight  im- 
portance. The 
book-lice  are  mi- 
nute and  may 
be  found  on 
books,  mainly  in 
dark  places  and 

where  the  books  are  not  frequently  used.  The  Psocids 
(Fig.  21,  4)  are  winged  and  hve  on  plants.  They  resemble 
large  plant-lice  more  than  any  other  common  insects,  but 
have  biting  mouth-parts,  while  the  plant  lice  suck  sap. 


I 


Fig.  21.     Slightly  reduced. 

Fish-moths    (Thysanura)  ;   2,    Mayflies   (Ephem- 
3,  Earwig  {Euplexoptera);    4,  Psocid  (Corrorfen- 
tia) ;    5,  Stone-flies  with    nymph  {Plecoptera) ;    6,  Ter- 
mites or  white-ants  (Isoptera), 


erida) ; 


36 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


29.  Isoptera.  The  Termites  or  White  ants  (Fig.  21,  6) 
form  this  order.  They  live  in  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  the  United  States  but  are  more  at  home  in  the 
tropics,  where  there  are  many  spe- 
cies. Only  one  or  two  species  are 
found  in  this  country.  They  are 
not  ants,  nor  are  they  structurally 
related  to  them,  but  get  their 
common  name  from  a  certain  su- 
perficial resemblance  in  form  and 
from  their  habits.  Colonies  may 
be  found  in  dead  and  decaying 
trees  and  in  stumps,  fence  posts 
and  logs.  They  attack  growing 
plants  at  times  and  are  often  in- 
jurious, especially  to  apple  seedHngs. 
Termites  frequently  eat  into  the 
foundations  and  at  times  go  on  up 
into  the  superstructures  of  houses 
where  they  mine  and  do  great 
damage.  They  are  wingless  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  and 
are  of  a  dead  white  color,  except 
their  jaws  and  a  part  of  their  heads. 
There  are  different  classes  of  indi- 
viduals, males  and  females,  work- 
ers and  soldiers,  in  the  colony. 
The  true  males  and  females,  or 
kings  and  queens,  appear  in  the  spring.  They  are  dark 
colored  and  fly  from  the  nest  in  great  swarms,  mating 
and  forming  new  colonies.  They  have  at  first,  four 
long,  narrow  and  delicate  wings,  poorly  attached  to 
the    bodies.      After    the    flight  the  wings   fall    off   or    are 


Fig.  22.— Work  of  Ter- 
mites in  Root  of  Cherry 
Seedling, 


THE   LOWER  ORDERS 


37 


gnawed  off.     The  function    of  these  individuals  is  repro- 
duction only. 

The  workers  are  of  both  sexes  but  are  not  fully  devel- 
oped sexually.  They  do  all  the  work  pertaining  to  the 
colony  and  are  blind  and  avoid  the  light.  They  are 
wingless.  Soldiers  are  like  the  workers  but  have  ex- 
traordinarily large  heads.  Their  function  is  said  to  be  the 
defense  of  the  colony,  but  there  is  considerable  doubt  as 
to  their  efficiency. 

30.  Mallophaga.*  The  members  of  this  order  are  called 
Bird-lice  or  Biting-lice,  but  are  found  as  often  on  various 
species  of  mammals  as  on  birds. 
They  are  wingless,  have  biting 
mouth-parts  and  rather  slender, 
flattened  bodies.  They  feed  on 
feathers,  hair  and  scales  of  the 
epidermis.  They  injure  their 
hosts  rather  by  irritating  them 
than  in  any  other  way.  Different 
kinds  may  be  found  on  poultry 
and  on  most  of  the  domestic 
animals,  as  well  as  on  many 
kinds  of  wild  birds  and  mam- 
mals. 

31.  Siphunculata.f  This  group  is  composed  of  the 
True  lice  or  the  Sucking-lice.  They  resemble  the  bird  lice 
superficially  but  are  usually  broader  and  more  flattened 
and  have  short  fleshy  beaks  by  means  of  which  they  suck 
blood  from  their  hosts,  which  are  mammals.  Three  spe- 
cies attack  man  and  some  others  are  known  to  attack 
marine  mammals,  thus  invading  a  field  in  which  insects 

*  See  Fig.  142,  page  200,  Part  II. 

t  See  Figs.  140  and  141,  pages  198,  199,  Part  II. 


Fig.  23.— a  Bird-louse  (Mal- 
lophaga). Highly  magnified. 


38 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  24.  —  True    Louse 
{Siphunculata). 


are  rare,   the  ocean.     This  order  is  usually  classed  as  a 
sub-order   of  the   Hemiptera  under  the  name  Parasitica, 
but  it  seems  more  logical   to  place 
it  separately,  as  it  has  Uttle  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  Hemiptera. 

32.  Euplexoptera.  The  Earwigs 
(Fig.  21,  3),  as  members  of  this  order 
are  commonly  called,  are  compar- 
atively rare  and  of  small  size  and 
importance.  They  resemble  certain 
beetles,  but  may  be  identified  by 
the  possession  of  a  pair  of  pincer- 
like  appendages  at  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen.  There  are  four  wings, 
the  front  pair  thickened  and  very 
short  and  the  hind  pair  large,  but 
folded  in  a  very  complex  fashion  under  the  front  pair 
where  they  are  completely  concealed.  The  common  name 
is  derived  from  an  old  English  superstition  that  they  got 
into  people's  ears  and  injured  them. 

33.  Siphonaptera.     The  Fleas  are  probably  more  nearly 

allied  to  the  true  flies  than  to  any 

other   group    of  insects.     They  are 

wingless,  compressed  laterally  so  that 

they  stand   "on  edge,"   so  to  speak, 

and  have  strongly    developed    hind 

legs  which  enable  them  to  leap  great 

distances.      They    feed     through    a 

sucking  tube  and  are  parasitic,  most 

species  attacking  mammals,  although 

there    is    one  species    that   attacks   hens.     Unlike   all   the 

other   orders   in   this    group,  the  fleas  develop  indirectly. 

Their   larvae  are  footless  and  worm-like  and  are  not  well 


Fig. 


25.  — A  Flea    {Si- 
■phonaptera) . 


THE   LOWER  ORDERS 


39 


known.  Those  of  the  common  species  that  attack  man 
and  domestic  animals  arc  known  to  feed  on  minute  par- 
ticles of  organic  matter  in  the  dust  in  the  cracks  in  floors 
and  in  other  similar  situations,  even  in  the  dust  on  the 
ground,  where  it  is  protected  from  moisture.  Fleas  have 
recently  been  proven  to  be  active  agents  in  the  spread 
of  diseases,  notably  the  Bubonic  plague,  which  is  carried 
by  the  rat-flea. 

34.  Physopoda.     Thrips.     Many  writers  give  the  namo 
Thysanoptera  to  this  order,  but  we  prefer  the  name  used 


Fig.  26. — Tobacco  Thrips,    Adult  and  Nymphs   (Physopoda).     After 
Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.     Highly  magnified. 

here   because   of  the  confusion  that  may  result  from  the 
use  of  a  name  so  much  like  Thysanura. 

The  Thrips  are  very  small  insects  with  narrow  wings 
fringed  with  long  hairs.  The 
mouth-parts  are  not  strongly 
developed,  but  are  fitted  for 
chewing  the  softer  plant  tis- 
sues, and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
for  sucking  the  sap  from  them. 
The  development  is  direct. 
These  insects  are  usually  not 
numerous  and  even  when  abundant  are  not  often  ob- 
served on  account   of  their  very  small  size,   most  forms 


Fig.  27.— Rose  Thrips  (Physo- 
poda).    Greatly  enlarged. 


40  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

being  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  quite 
slender.  There  are  several  injurious  species.  Most  of 
these  are  found  in  the  tropical  or  sub-tropical  countries. 
Citrus  fruits,  in  Florida  and  California,  often  suffer  from 
their  work.  We  have  also  one  species  that  attacks  pears, 
others  in  greenhouses,  on  carnations,  one  on  onions  and 
one  attacking  roses,  spoihng  the  appearance  of  the  blossom. 


CHAPTER  VI 
NEUROPTEROm   ORDERS 

Older  writers  on  entomology  placed  several  groups  of 
insects  which  we  now  class  as  separate  orders  together  in 
the  old  order  Neuroptera.  About  the  only  character  com- 
mon to  all  the  members  of  the  group  was  the  possession 
of  membranous  wings  with  many  veins.  Even  this  char- 
acter was  by  no  means  absolute.  Later  writers  divided 
the  group  into  Neuroptera,  proper,  and  Pseudo-Neurop- 
tera*  the  former  including  those  groups  which  developed 
indirectly  and  the  latter  those  with  direct  development. 
Both  divisions  normally  have  biting  mouth-parts,  although 
in  each  group  some  are  found  with  mouth-parts  obsolete 
or  rudimentary. 

35.  Pseudo-Neuroptera.  Three  orders  of  insects  having 
membranous  wings,  direct  development,  biting  mouth- 
parts  and  aquatic  nymphs  are  included  here. 

Plecoptera.  Insects  with  four  wings,  the  front  pair 
rather  narrow,  the  hind  pair  broader  and  folded  length- 
wise, hidden,  while  at  rest,  beneath  the  front  pair.  The 
mouth-parts  usually  well  developed  but  sometimes  nearly 
obsolete  and  the  nymphs  Hving  under  stones  in  running 
water  which  habit  gives  the  adults  the  common  name  of 
Stone-flies.  Adults  may  be  found  in  spring  and  early 
summer  about  the  streams  in  the  evening  and  are  fre- 

*  Some  groups  at  times  placed  with  the  Pseudo-Neuroptera  we 
prefer  to  consider  elsewhere.  These  are  the  Termites  and  the  Book- 
Uce  and  their  relatives. 

41 


42  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

quently  attracted  to  lights  in  considerable  numbers. 
Nymphs  may  be  secured  by  lifting  flat  stones  from  run- 
ning streams  and  examining  the  under  sides  of  these  where 
they  will  be  found  clinging  closely.  Common  stoneflies 
belong  to  the  family  Perlidce. 

Ephemerida.  The  May-flies  are  delicate  insects  with 
four  wings  which  have  finely  netted  veins.  The  front 
wings  are  large  and  the  angles  are  considerably  produced. 
The  hind  wings  are  small  and  sometimes  disappear  en- 
tirely. In  the  adults  the  mouth-parts  are  rudimentary. 
At  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  are  two  or  three  thread-like 
tails  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  the  entire  body.  The 
nymphs  are  soft  bodied  and  live  on  the  bottoms  of  streams, 
usually  where  the  current  is  sluggish.  The  adults  live 
only  a  short  time.  They  may  be  found  along  streams 
clinging  back  downward  to  leaves  and  twigs  and  are 
attracted  in  immense  numbers  to  electric  lights.  Floors 
of  bridges  are  often  covered  to  a  depth  of  an  inch  or 
more  with  these  insects  on  warm  nights  in  early  summer. 
They  are  called  also  Shad-flies  and  Day-flies.  The  family 
name  is  Ephemeridse  and  both  it  and  the  order  name  are 
suggested  by  the  short  life  of  the  insect. 

Odonata.  Dragon-flies  and  Damsel-flies.  The  members 
of  this  order  are  better  known  than  the  other  Pseudo- 
Neuroptera  as  they  fly  by  day  and  are  numerous  wherever 
there  is  water.  They  have  long  narrow  wings,  finely 
netted  veined,  and  slender  bodies.  The  nymphs  live  in 
the  water  on  the  bottoms  of  ponds  and  in  sluggish  streams. 
The  Dragon-flies  (Anisoptera) ,  are  the  larger  members  of 
the  order.  Their  wings  are  nearly  the  same  width  from 
base  to  tip  and  they  have  very  powerful  flight.  They  are 
variously  called  Mosquito-hawks,  Snake-doctors,  Snake- 
feeders,  Mule-killers  and  DeviVs  darni tig-needles. 


NEUROPTEROID  ORDERS 


43 


Dragon-fly   nymphs   are   rather   stout-bodied   and   live 
near  the  bottoms  of  ponds  or  streams,  and  are,  at  times, 


Fig.    28. — Types    of   Odonata.     Above,    Dragon-flies    with    nymphs; 
below,  Damsel-flies.     Reduced  one-third. 

found  buried  in  the  mud.     They  swim  by  forcing  water 
from  the  anal  tube,  in  the  walls  of  which  are  located  the 


44  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

trachea  by  means  of  which  they  breathe.  They  feed  on 
other  small  animals  in  the  water.  These  nymphs  have  very 
curiously  constructed  mouths.  The  lower  lip  is  prolonged 
and  hollowed  out  so  that  the  rest  of  the  mouth-parts  and 
the  lower  part  of  the  head  fit  into  it.  Food  is  captured  in 
this  "soup-bowl"  and  carried  to  the  jaws.     (See  Fig.  28.) 

Damsel-flies  (Zygoptera),  are  smaller  than  the  dragon- 
flies  and  have  the  abdomen  much  more  slender.  They  have 
the  wings  suddenly  narrowed  at  about  one-fourth  of  the 
distance  from  the  base  to  the  tip  so  that  they  seem  to  be 
stalked.  When  at  rest  they  hold  their  wings  in  a  vertical 
position,  slanting  backward  over  the  back  while  the 
dragon-flies  hold  theirs  spread  out  horizontally. 

Damsel-fly  nymphs  are  also  more  slender  than  the 
dragon-fly  nymphs.  They  have  three  long  and  narrow, 
oval,  leaf-like  tracheal  gills. 

Nymphs  of  both  the  above  groups  are  easy  to  obtain 
and  make  excellent  aquarium  material. 

36.  Neuroptera  Proper.  Three  orders  may  be  in- 
cluded in  this  group.  All  have  membranous  wings,  some 
with  netted  veined  wings,  others  with  the  veins  mostly 
longitudinal.  The  mouth-parts  are  typically  biting.  The 
development  is  indirect  and  the  larvae  have  various  forms 
and  food  habits,  some  being  aquatic  and  some  terrestrial. 

The  order  Neuroptera  in  the  strict  sense  includes  the 
largest  and  most  numerous  members  of  the  group.  They 
have  finely  netted  wings  usually  long  and  rather  narrow. 
The  largest  form  is  the  Corydalis  or  Dobson-fly.  This  in- 
sect has  a  wing  expanse  of  five  inches  or  more.  The 
females  have  strong  jaws  but  in  the  males  these  are 
greatly  prolonged  and  shaped  hke  a  very  slender  cow- 
horn.  They  are  not  dangerous  and  their  pinch  is  scarcely 
painful.     Larvae    of    the    Corydalis    live    under    stones    in 


NEUROPTEROID  ORDERS 


45 


swiftly  running  water  and 
Fishermen  prize  them 
for  bass  bait.  As  it 
takes  them  three  years 
to  mature  they  may  be 
found  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  either  in  the 
water  or  under  stones 
near  the  water's  edge. 
The  adults  are  attracted 
to  the  lights  during  June 
and  July. 

Several  other  species 
of  this  family  (Sialidoe), 
are  aquatic,  but  most  of 
the  remaining  Neurop- 
tera  are  found  on  land 
in  all  their  stages. 

The  Ant-lion  {Myr- 
7neleonidce) ,  or  more  pop- 
ularly the  "Doodle- 
bug," makes  small  fun- 
nel-shaped pits  in  sand  or 
dry,  powdery,  decaying 
wood.  Small  insects  fall 
into  these  pits,  aided  by 
slides  on  the  steep  sides, 
and  are  captured  and 
eaten.  The  ant-lion  has 
strong  curved  jaws 
through  which  it  sucks 
the  blood  from  its  vic- 
tims.    Its  body  is  stout 


are  known  as  "  helgrammites." 


Fig.  29. — Neuropterous  Insects. 
Reduced. 

a,  Dobson-fly,  Corydalis  cornuta  (Neurop' 
tera);  b.  Ant-lion,  adult;  c,  Ant-lion,  cocoon 
and  larva  {Xeuroptera) ;  d,  d,  Caddice-flies 
(Trichoptera)  ;  c.  Aphis-lion  or  lace-wing  fly 
(Xeuroptera);  f,  Bittacus  sp.,  and  g.  Scor- 
pion-flies,   Panorpa  sp.   (Mecoptera). 


46  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  oval,  being  mostly  abdomen.  It  digs  its  pits  by 
getting  the  sand  on  its  head  and  flipping  it  sharply 
backward,  turning  slightly  after  each  "flip."  The  adults 
resemble  the  damsel-flies,  but  have  larger  antennae  and 
fold  their  wings  roof-Uke.  The  wings  are  not  so  distinctly 
stalked. 

Aphis-lions  or  lace-wing  flies  (Chnjsopidce)  have  very 
thin,  lacy  wings  and  are  usually  green  in  color.  They 
may  be  found  flying  in  shrubbery  throughout  the  summer. 
The  eggs  are  laid  on  long  slender  stalks  fastened  to  leaves 
or  branches  so  that  the  hungry  young  first  hatching  may 
not  destroy  those  as  yet  unhatched.  The  larvae  resemble 
the  ant-lions  but  are  more  slender  and  have  usually  some 
yellow  or  red  markings.  They  may  be  found  in  colonies 
of  plant-lice  on  which  they  feed,  thus  earning  the  name 
of  aphis-lions.  The  adults  are  also  called  "golden-eyes," 
from  the  brilliant  golden  color  of  the  eyes. 

Mecoptera  are  given  the  name  of  Scorpion-flies.  They 
have  narrow  wings  with  few  cross  veins.  The  head  is 
somewhat  prolonged,  forming  a  beak  on  which  the  mouth 
is  situated.  The  abdomen  is  slender  and  in  the  males  of 
some  species  is  so  formed  at  the  tip  as  to  resemble  the 
sting  of  the  scorpion.  The  larvae  are  not  often  encoun- 
tered and  are  caterpillar-like,  having  at  least  eight  pairs 
of  pro-legs  on  the  abdomen.  Two  groups  in  this  order 
are  common,  one  the  true  scorpion-fly,  another  (Bittacus), 
which  has  no  distinctive  common  name  but  which  super- 
ficially resembles  the  crane  flies. 

Trichoptera,  or  Caddice-flies  are  usually  small,  moth- 
like insects  with  long  antennae  and  wings  sparsely  clothed 
with  hairs,  which  adds  to  their  moth-like  appearance. 
The  wings  have  few  cross  veins.  The  mouth-parts  are 
rudimentary  in  the  adults. 


NEUROPTEROID   ORDERS  47 

The  larvae  are  aquatic  and  are  called  Caddice-worms. 
They  live  in  running  water  and  form  cocoons  of  various 
materials,  twigs,  sand,  pebbles  and  silk,  which  they  spin 
as  do  caterpillars.  These  are  often  attached  to  the  under 
sides  of  stones.  The  larvae  are  caterpillar-like,  but  may  be 
recognized  by  their  habitat  and  by  the  absence  of  the  pro- 
legs. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ORTHOPTERA 

Nearly  all  the  groups  of  insects  classed  as  Orthoptera 
are  well  known.  Tliis  is  probably  more  true  of  this  order 
than  of  any  other.  Included  here  are  the  Grasshoppers 
or  Locusts,  the  Katydids,  the  Crickets  and  the  Roaches.  Less 
common  are  the  Walking-sticks  and  Praying  mantids  or 
Rear-horses. 

37.  General  Characteristics.  Some  species  and  indi- 
viduals of  other  species  are  wingless,  but  there  are  typi- 
ically  four  wings.  Of  these,  the  front  pair  is  narrow  and 
leathery  and  the  hind  pair  broad,  folded  fan-like  and  con- 
cealed and  protected  by  the  front  pair  when  at  rest.  The 
mouth-parts  are  well  developed  and  formed  for  chewing, 
grasshoppers  having  been  accused,  with  some  truth,  of 
attacking  pitch-fork  handles  and  the  edges  of  scythes.* 
Orthoptera  develop  directly  and  as  a  rule  the  young  re- 
semble the  adults  in  form  and  habits. 

38.  Acrididae.  The  grasshoppers,  or  true  locusts,  in- 
clude the  worst  insect  pests  the  world  has  known.  Records 
of  them  appear  in  the  earliest  history  and  their  ravages 
are  recorded  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  No  insects  have 
ever  produced  such  wide-spread  desolation  and  misery  as 
the  various  migratory  forms  of  these  insects.  Just  here 
it    may    be    noted    that  the  terms  grasshopper  and  locust 

*  The  author  can  vouch  for  the  fork  handle  but  not  for  the 
scythe,  although  farmers  have  told  him  in  good  faith  that  grass- 
hoppers dulled  their  scythes  by  gnawing  the  edges. 

48 


ORTHOPTERA 


49 


Fig.  30. — Types  of  Orthopiera.     Reduced  about  one-half. 

1.  Walking-stick  (Phasmidce);  2,  Praying-mantis  (MantidcF);  3,  Cave  cricket 
(,Locustid(F) ;  4,  right,  egg  mass  of  Praying-mantis;  left,  eggs  of  Katydid  on  twig; 
center  and  5,  Katydids  (Locustida) ;    6,  Long-horned  grasshopper  {Locustidcej. 


50 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


are  synonymous,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  the  United 
States  the  term  locust  has  been  apphed  to  an  entirely 
different  insect,  the  Cicada.  This  misapplication  of  the 
term  results  in  confusion,  because  in  the  literature  of  the 


Fig.  31. — Types  of  Orthoptera.    Grasshoppers  (Acndidoe). 


world  the  term  locust  signifies  grasshopper.  Grasshoppers 
scarcely  need  characterization.  The  fact  that  they  have 
antennae  shorter  than  the  body  will  suffice  to  separate 
them  from  the  family  Locustidce. 


ORTHOPTERA 


51 


Locusts  are  mentioned  in  the  the  book  of  Exodus 
as  the  eighth  plague  of  Egypt  and  at  various  other  places 
in  the  Bible  and  in  secular  Hterature,  The  forms  that 
attract  the  most  notice  are  the  migratory  ones.  One  mi- 
gratory species  in  the  United  States  has  done  enormous 
damage  in  times  past  and  is  still  occasionally  injurious, 
and  other  species  have  the  migratory  habit  to  a  degree. 
The  chief  one  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust.  In  its  flights 
it  spread  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
eastward  almost  entirely  covering  the  plains 
regions  to  the  Mississippi.  It  also  invaded 
the  agricultural  sections  of  Idaho,  Utah  and 
Nevada.  Non-migratory  species  are  injur- 
ious every  year,  but  their  damage  is  not 
so  universal  as  was  that  of  the  migratory 
kind.  They  are  successfully  combated  by 
the  use  of  poisoned  bran-mash  where  they 
occur  in  great  numbers.  Grasshopper  eggs 
are  laid  in  masses  in  the  soil  and  the  winter 
is  usually  passed  by  this  stage.  Some  hatch 
in  the  fall  and  pass  the  winter  as  young 
nymphs  which  may  be  seen  hopping  about  on  warm 
days  in  winter  and  in  early  spring.  Common  species  are 
the  American  Acridium,  the  Carolina  locust,  and  the  Dif- 
ferential locust  or  Alfalfa  grasshopper.* 

39.  Locustidae.  This  family  is  rather  unfortunately 
named,  as  it  includes  the  katydids  and  long-horned  grass- 
hoppers, not  the  locusts.  Its  members  are  grasshopper- 
like in  form  but  are  in  general  more  delicate  and  have 
antennae  longer  than  the  body.  Some  kinds  are  wingless, 
but  ordinarily  the  wings  are  longer  than  is  usually  the 

*  See  page  241,  Part  II,  for  detailed  descriptions  of  injurious 
species. 


Fig.  32.— a 

'Grouse-locust" 

(Acridid(p). 


52  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

case  with  the  grasshoppers.  The  best-known  species  are 
the  common  Katydids,  which  have  wings  broad  at  the  base, 
giving  them  a  hump-backed  appearance,  and  are  green  in 
color.  They  Uve  mostly  in  trees,  where  they  eat  foliage. 
Eggs  of  katydids  are  also  placed  on  twigs.  They  are  a 
blue-gray  in  color  and  are  a  flat  oval,  about  one-eighth 
inch  long.  They  are  laid  in  a  row  on  a  twig  and  overlap 
shghtly.  There  are  usually  about  a  dozen  in  a  row. 
These  eggs  are  sometimas  mistaken  for  scale  insects  al- 
though there  is  no  real  similarity.  Some  of  the  meadow- 
grasshoppers  resemble  katydids,  but  are  not  hump-backed. 
Others  are  brownish  in  color  and  still  others  have  very 
peculiar  pointed  heads.  Most  of  these  live  on  grasses  and 
weeds.  Some  cricket-like  forms,  living  in  cellars  and  caves, 
called  Cave  Crickets,  are  yellowish-brown  in  color  and  wing- 
less, and  belong  to  this  family. 

40.  Gryllidae.  Crickets  are  of  various  forms,  but  differ 
from  the  Orthoptera  so  far  considered  in  that  they  are 
flattened  on  top  and  hold  their  wings  flat  on  the  body 
rather  than  roof-like.  They  are  usually  stout  bodied,  but 
not  necessarily  so.     Many  are  wingless. 

The  common  Black  Crickets  found  in  houses,  in  fields, 
under  stones  and  rotting  logs,  are  well  known  to  all.  The 
Tree  Crickets,  slender,  light  in  color,  rather  small  in  size,  and 
with  long  wings,  are  not  so  well  known.  Neither  are  the 
Mole  Crickets,  curious  forms  with  front  feet  resembling 
those  of  a  mole,  which  burrow  in  the  ground  after  the 
fashion  of  their  namesake.  Fig.  31  illustrates  these  forms 
well  enough  to  identify  them. 

41.  Blattidae.  (See  Page  214,  Part  II.)  Roaches  are 
the  scourge  of  many  households  and  it  is  as  household 
pests  that  they  are  best  known,  although  many  are  found 
in  the  woods,  in  decaying  logs,  and  under  stones,  where  they 


ORTHOPTERA 


53 


are  harmless.  Roaches  in  a  house  do  Httle  real  destruction, 
but  spoil  food  by  running  over  it  and  eating  parts  of  it. 
They  often  seriously  injure 
book-bindings  by  gnawing 
them.  They  hide  in  cracks 
and  crevices  and  in  holes 
made  for  plumbing.  In  old 
houses  it  is  next  to  impos- 
sible to  be  entirely  rid  of 
them.  Many  roach  destroy- 
ers, usually  in  the  form 
of  powders,  are  sold  and 
some  are  said  to  be  effi- 
cient. Old  houses,  even  if 
entirely  freed  from  roaches, 
will  always  be  likely  to  be 
soon  reinfested  from  neigh- 
boring houses. 

There  are  several  spe- 
cies of  roaches  but  all  that 
Uve  in  houses  are  similar 
in  habits  and  appearance. 
Both  winged  and  wingless 
forms  may  always  be  found. 

42.  Ph  as  mid  £6  and 
Mantidae.  Two  very  pe- 
cuharly  formed  groups  of 
insects  are  the  Phasmids 
or  "  Walking-sticks  "  and 
the  Mantids  or  "Rear-horses."  The  former  are  elongated, 
have  very  long  and  slender  legs  and  antennae  and  are 
wingless.*  They  are  usually  green  or  brown  in  color  and 
*  Many  tropical  species  have  wings. 


Fig.  33.— Types  of  Ortlwpkni 

1,  2,  3,  and  4,  Roaches  (Blatiidm)  ; 
Sand  6,  Tree-crickets;  7,  Mole-cricket; 
8,  9,  Ground-crickets  (all  Gryllidae). 


54  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

when  at  rest  on  a  twig  or  grass  stem  look  so  much  Hke 
the  plant  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  detect.  They  are 
plant  eaters,  but  rarely  do  much  damage. 

The  Mantis,  or  Praying  Mantis  has  a  long  slender 
thorax,  an  abdomen  which  becomes,  when  full  of  food,  or 
eggs,  very  much  distended  and  broadly  oval,  but  is  at  other 
times  rather  slender,  and  short  wings.  It  captures  and 
kills  other  insects.  The  front  legs  are  fitted  for  grasping 
the  victims  and  the  thorax  is  carried  nearly  erect  with  the 
front  feet  in  a  "prayerful"  attitude.  This  position  gives 
rise  to  the  common  name.  Eggs  of  this  insect  are  placed 
in  masses  on  twigs  of  trees  and  cemented  together,  the 
masses  being  over  a  half  inch  long  and  about  one-quarter 
inch  high.  They  are  more  frequently  observed  than  the 
eggs  of  most  other  Orthoptera  as  they  are  more  conspic- 
uous. 

Table  for  the  Determination  of  the  Families  of 

ORTHOPTERA 

A.  Legs  fitted  for  jumping. 

B.  Antennse  shorter  than  the  body. 

Grasshoppers.    Acrididce. 

BB.  Antennae  longer  than  ])ody. 

C.  Wings  carried,  when  at  rest,  in  a  vertical  or  roof- 
shaped  position.  0\dpositors  sword-shaped,  curved 
upward  or  straight. 

Katydids,  etc.     Locustidce. 

CC.  Wings   in   a   position    approximately  horizontal,   flat 
on  the  back.     Ovipositors  slender,  spear-shaped. 

Crickets.     Gryllidce. 

AA.  Legs  not  fitted  for  jumping. 

B.  Bodies  flattened  and  oval.  Roaches.    Blattidce. 


ORTHOPTERA  55 

BB.  Bodies  elongated. 
C.  Front  legs  fitted  for  grasping  prey.     Prothorax    car- 
ried somewhat  erect. 

Praying  Mantids.     MantidcB. 

CC.  Front  legs  not  fitted  for  grasping.     Body  and  legs 
very  long  and  slender.     Wingless. 

Walking-sticks.     Phasmidoe. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HEMIPTERA 

The  order  Hemiptera  is  made  up  of  insects  having 
sucking  mouth-parts  and  direct  development.  They  have, 
typically,  four  wings  but  many  kinds  are  wingless  and  the 
males  in  one  group  have  two  wings  only.  The  order  is  made 
up  of  two  sub-orders  that  are  so  dissimilar  in  appearance, 
structure  and  habits,  that  they  may  be  considered  sep- 
arately. 

43.  Heteroptera.  The  members  of  this  sub-order  are 
the  true  bugs  and  are  the  only  insects  to  which  the  name 
hug,  not  in  combination  with  some  other  word,  is  properly 
applied.  Most  bugs  are  winged.  The  front  wings  are 
thick  and  narrow  at  the  base  and  are  broader  and  thinner 
and  overlap  at  the  tips.  They  are  usually  carried  rather 
flat  on  the  back,  though  some  forms  have  strongly  arched 
backs.  The  beak  is  strong  and  arises  from  the  front  part 
of  the  head.  The  habits  are  varied.  Some  bugs  are 
predaceous,  some  are  plant-eaters  and  seriously  injurious. 
Several  families,  which  we  shall  consider  together  as  the 
"Aquatic  Bugs,"  live  in  or  about  the  water. 

Aquatic  Bugs.  Several  families,  which  need  not  be 
considered  in  detail,  are  aquatic.  The  largest  of  our  bugs 
are  those  known  as  the  Giajit  Water-hugs  or,  sometimes, 
as  the  "electric-light  bugs."  These  are  about  three  inches 
long  by  one  inch  broad,  flattened,  brownish  in  color,  with 
legs  fitted  for  swimming.  They  are  frequently  attracted 
to  the  electric  lights  and  may  also  be  found  swimming  near 

56 


HEMIPTERA 


57 


the  bottoms  of  pools.     There  is  a  smaller  species  which  is 
less  abundant. 

On  the  surface  of  the  water  of  quiet  pools  and  even 


Fig.  34. — Types  of  True  Bugs  (Heteroptera).     Slightly  reduced. 

1.  Giant  water-bug  {BeJmftomidce);  2,  Back-swimmers  (NotoneclidcF);  3,  Thread- 
legged  bug  {Emesidce);  4,  Water-boatman  (Corisidce);  5,  Water-scorpion  (Nepidte); 
6,  Bclostomidce;  7,  Water-strider  {Hydrobatidce);  8,  Marsh-treader  (Limnohatida:); 
9,  Toad-shaped  bug  {Galgulidw). 


on  running  streams  may   frequently  be  seen   numbers  of 
spider-like   creatures   with   slender   bodies   and   long   legs. 


58  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

These  are  the  Water-striders  (HijdrobatidcB).  They  may  be 
either  winged  or  wingless.  Among  the  local  names  for 
these  bugs  may  be  mentioned  "Water-spiders,"  "Water- 
skippers"  and  "Skaters." 

Two  families  of  medium  to  small  insects,  generally 
found  swimming  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  are  the 
Water-boatmen  (Corisidce),  and  the  Back-swimmers  (No- 
tonedidw) .  Both  have  oar-like  legs  and  powerful  beaks 
capable  of  inflicting  painful  stings.  The  boatmen  are 
flattened  while  the  back-swimmers  have  "V  "-shaped 
backs  and  swim  upside  down,  the  angle  of  the  back  mak- 
ing a  sort  of  keel.  Both  these  families  are  generally  dis- 
tributed in  ponds  and  are  easily  recognized.  Still  another 
water-bug  is  the  Water-scor-pion  (Nepidce).  The  more  com- 
mon species  of  this  family  has  a  very  slender  body,  long  legs 
and  a  long  breathing  tube  projecting  from  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen.  When  at  rest,  a  water-scorpion  hangs  head 
downward  in  the  water  with  the  breathing  tube  just  reach- 
ing the  surface.  The  common  form  is  more  than  three 
inches  long,  including  the  tail.  Several  other  families  of 
water  bugs  are  less  numerous  and  less  conspicuous. 

Land  Bugs.  The  land  bugs  are  of  the  most  varied 
shapes  and  habits.  The  most  numerous  and  widely  dis- 
tributed are  the  so-called  Leaf -bugs  (Capsidce).  Sweep 
through  the  grass  with  an  insect  net  in  midsummer  and 
you  will  find  in  the  net  a  large  number  of  small  insects. 
Many  of  these  will  easily  be  seen  to  be  true  bugs  of  which 
the  great  majority  are  leaf-bugs.  They  are  generally  small 
and  usually  green  or  brownish  in  color.  Seme  are  of  eco- 
nomic importance,  but  no  one  form  is  especially  injurious. 
The  Tarnished  Plant-bug  is  widely  distributed  and  injures 
fruits  of  various  sorts,  especially  pears. 

Probably  the  best  known  of  the  bugs  are  the   Stink- 


HEMIPTERA 


59 


bugs  (Pentatomidce) .  They  may  be  recognized  by  their 
form  and  also  by  their  pe- 
culiar and  unpleasant  odors. 
IMany  of  us,  unfortunately, 
know  them  also  by  their  taste, 
as  they  frequently  get  on 
berries.  In  form  they  are 
rather  short  and  broad  with 
moderately  arched  backs. 
They  are  of  medium  to  large 
size  and  in  color  usually  vary 
from  green  to  many  shades 
of  brown.  In  this  family 
again,  we  have  many  forms 
that  are  somewhat  injurious, 
but  few  that  are  notably  so. 
The  brightly  colored  Harle- 
quin Cabbage-hug  is  often  a 
serious  pest  in  the  South.  It 
is  recognized  by  its  red,  black 
and  yellow  colors.  Many  spe- 
cies in  this  family,  known 
as  Soldier-bugs,  are  preda- 
ceous  and  destroy  injurious 
larvae.  Most  common  among 
these  are  the  green  soldier-l^ug 
and  the  spined    soldier-bug. 

The  Squash-bug  family 
(Coreidoe)  takes  its  common 
name  from  the  well-known 
garden  pest,  the  squash-bug. 
Members  of  this  family  are  rather  longer  and  narrower 
than  the  stink-bugs  and  are  small  to  medium  in  size  with 


Fig.  85. — T^^ses  of  True  Bugs 
{Heteroptera).  Slightly  re- 
duced. 

1.  The  Wheel-bug   (ffe^umtfffi); 

2,  ReduiiidcE;  3,  Cureidw,  4,  Cap- 
sidcE  ;  5,  Phymatidce  ;  6,  Stilt-bug 
{Berytidw);  7,  Negro-bug  (Corime- 
l(tiiidce)\  8,  Burrower  bug  (Cj/dwtdce); 
9,  Stink-bugs  {Pentatomidce). 


60 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


FF 


3.^ 

I 

5  I 

f 


Fig.  36.— TjTDes 
of  True  Bugs 
(Heteroplera). 
Enlarged. 

1 .  Lac  e-b  u  g 
(Tingitidw);  2, 
Negro-bug  (Cori- 
melaenidce) ;  3,  Bed- 
bug {Acanthiidoe) ; 
4,  Flat-bug  Ara- 
didce) ;  5,  Chinch- 
bug  (LygcExdae) ;  6, 
7,  Lygcndce;  8,  9, 
Leaf-bugs  (Capsi- 
dce);  10,  Stilt-bug 
(Merytidce) . 


a  few  large  species  included  in  the  family. 
Many  have  the  powerful  odor  found  in 
the  preceding  group  and  are,  on  this  ac- 
count, often  mistaken  for  them.  The  box- 
elder  bug  of  the  Middle  West  and  the  leaf- 
footed  bugs  of  the  South  are  members  of 
this  family. 

The  Assassin-hiigs  {Reduviidce)  are,  in 
general  shape,  much  like  the  squash-bugs, 
but  give  the  impression  of  being  softer 
and  more  delicate.  Their  legs  are  longer 
and  more  slender  and  heads  and  beaks 
are  also  often  more  slender,  although  the 
beaks  may  be  short  and  powerful.  Assas- 
sin-bugs are,  as  their  name  implies,  pre- 
daceous,  and  capture  and  eat  large  numbers 
of  other  insects.  Some  forms  get  in  houses 
and  even  attack  man.  They  may  be 
considered,  in  general,  as  beneficial  insects. 

One  of  the  most  serious  pests  the  grain 
grower  of  the  Middle  States  has  to  fight  is 
the  Chinch-hug.  (See  page  238,  Part  II.) 
This  insect  is  one  of  the  smaller  members 
of  a  family  (Lygceidce)  which  takes  its  com- 
mon name  from  this  species.  Lygaeids  are 
intermediate  between  the  squash-bugs  and 
the  assassin  bugs  in  form.  They  range 
from  very  small  to  medium  in  size  and 
are  usually  of  dark  colors.  They  are  gen- 
erally plant  eaters  but,  with  the  one  ex- 
ception,  are  not  serious  pests. 

Still  another  well-known  bug  is  the 
common  Bed-bug   {Acanthiidce) .     It  is  less 


HEMIPTERA  61 

than  one-quarter  inch  in  length,  very  much  flattened, 
wingless,  and  dark  brown  in  color.  It  feeds,  as  is  well 
known,  on  human  blood.  The  individual  unfortunate 
enough  to  encounter  it  will  recognize  it  without  trouble. 

Two  very  peculiarly  shaped  bugs  are  the  representa- 
tives of  families  known  commonly  as  Thread-legged  bugs 
{EmesidcB)  and  Stilt-hugs  (Berytidw).  Both  have  very 
slender  bodies  and  long,  slender  legs.  The  common  stilt- 
bug  has  a  body  about  three-eighths  inch  in  length  while 
the  thread-legged  bug  is  much  larger.  Its  body  is  more 
than  an  inch  long  and  its  legs  are  much  longer.  The 
stilt-bugs  may  be  found  rather  commonly  in  grass  and 
on  shrubs  but  the  thread-legged  bugs  are  rare  and  more 
frequently  found  in  old  barns  and  other  open  buildings. 

44.  Homoptera.  The  second  sub-order  of  the  Hcmip- 
tera  is  different  in  many  ways  from  the  true  bugs.  Here 
the  wings  are  either  membranous  or  thickened,  but  in 
either  case  are  the  same  throughout.  The  beak  is  at- 
tached to  the  back  margin  of  the  under  side  of  the  head 
and  often  seems  to  arise  from  just  between  the  forelegs. 
The  backs  are  typically  "V  "-shaped  or  rounded  and  the 
wings  do  not  overlap  as  in  the  bugs.  There  are  some 
highly  specialized  forms  in  the  group  which  will  not 
be  recognized  by  the  characters  given  above,  but  rather 
by  their  own  peculiarities. 

Cicadas.  The  Cicadidce  or  the  Cicadas,  sometimes 
called  Harvest-flies  or  Jar-flies,  are  the  largest  of  the 
Homoptera.  To  this  family  belongs  the  Periodical  Cicada, 
better  known  as  the  seventeen-year  locust.  So  much  has 
been  written  regarding  this  insect  that  a  description  of  its 
appearance  or  habits  would  seem  superfluous.  The  species 
that  appear  every  year  are  larger  and  take  only  two 
years    to   develop.      As   there   are   two   broods,    we    have 


62 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  37. — Types  of  Homoptera.     Slightly  redumi. 

a.  Periodical  Cicada;  b.  Harvest-flies  with  nymph  (Cicadidce);  c,  rree-hoppers, 
(Mvmbracidae) ;  d.  Leaf-hoppers  (Jassida;);  e,  /,  Frog-hoppers  (Cercopidoe);  g,  h. 
Fulgoridw;    i,  Lecanium  acale  (Coccidw), 


HEMIPTERA  63 

some  members  of  the  species  with  us  every  g     J 

summer.      The  males   in   this  family  pos-  f       ■, 

sess,    at    the    base    of   the  abdomen,    two 

drum-like  organs  with  which  they  produce  2.  fll 

their    characteristic     song     or     "  shrill." 

Cicadas  are,  as  a  rule,  harmless,  but  the  1 

periodical  cicada  does  great  injury  to  fruit  9 

trees  by  splitting  the  twigs  to  deposit  its 

eggs.     Fortunately  it  does  not  come  often  ^^ 

enough    to    be    a  serious   menace   to   the  ^'  W 

fruit  industry. 

Plant-hoppers.  Several  families  of  ho- 
mopterous  insects  constitute  a  group  gen- 
erally spoken  of  collectively  as  the  plant- 
hoppers.  Broadl}'  speaking,  we  may  in- 
clude in  this  group  the  Spittle  insectP{Cer- 
copidoe),  forms  which,  in  young  stages,  live 
concealed  in  a  frothy  secretion  which 
resembles  spittle,  and  are  found  on  several 
common  weeds;  the  Lantern-flies  {Fulgori- 
dce),  among  which  are  a  few  moth-like 
forms  and,  in  the  tropics,  some  others 
that  are  luminescent,  but  which  do  not 
include  our  fire-flies;  and  the  more  impor- 
tant and  numerous  Leaf-hoppers  (J ass i da), 
and  Tree-hopper kxMembracidce) .  All  of  these 
famihes    have    the    power    of   leaping  but 

they  are  otherwise  sufficiently  distinct  for         ',  „ '       , 
"^  ^  oi  Homoptera. 

easy  recognition.    The  Jassidm  are  slender.  Slightly     en- 
small,  and  have  pointed  heads.     The  tree-  larged. 
hoppers  are  stouter  bodied,  larger  and  have  pers'(iosJ<L);°2, 
heads  nearly  concealed  beneath  the  protho-  Tree  -hoppers 

(M embracidcg) ;  5,  9, 

rax  when  seen  from  above,  and  usually  cut     Fuigoridw:7,v\ant- 

''  louse    (Aphididoe). 


64 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


off  squarely  or  rounded,  not  pointed.  They  have  also  very 
strange  growths  on  the  prothorax  which  almost  entirely 
covers  the  head  and  projects  backward  and  covers  the 
greater  part  of  the  wings  and  the  abdomen.  Its  varied 
shapes  are  often  ludicrous  and  laughable  and  give  the 
insects  the  locally  common  name  "Brownie-bugs."     Both 

famihes  of  hoppers 
are  plant  eaters  and 
attack  many  eco- 
nomic plants.  Possibly 
the  worst  common 
forms  are  the  leaf- 
hoppers  on  the  grape 
and  the  apple  and  the 
tree-hopper,  known  as 
the  "Buffalo  tree- 
hopper."  Many  tree- 
hoppers  are  injurious 
from  their  egg-laying 
habits,  damaging 
twigs  in  this  way, 
but  are  harmless  so 
far  as  their  feeding 
is  concerned.  Leaf- 
hoppers,  on  the  other  hand,  feed  like  the  plant  lice 
and  are  even  more  difficult  to  control  because  they  are 
much  more  active. 

By  far  the  most  important  of  the  Homoptera  and,  in- 
deed, among  the  most  important  of  all  insects  are  the 
two  families  known  as  Scale-insects  iCoccidoe),  and  plant- 
lice  or  Aphids  (Aphididce). 

Scale  Insects  will  not  be  at  first  recognized  as  insects 
or  even  as  living  animals  by  the  amateur.     They  are  ap- 


FiG.  39. — Different  Stages  of  a  Scale- 
insect.  After  Howard,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.     Highly  magnified. 

a.  Adult  male;   c.  Young  nymph  ;    e.  Adult  fe- 
male from  beneath. 


HEMIPTERA 


65 


parently,  for  the  greater  part  of  their  hves,  inanimate 
objects  on  the  bark  of  trees.  They  are  usually  less  than 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, oval  or  circular  in  outline, 
and  more  or  less  flattened.  The 
3^oung  and  the  adult  males  have 
eyes  and  appendages  and  move 
about.  Other  stages  fasten  them- 
selves to  the  host-plant  by  means 
of  their  beaks  and  also  by  a 
waxy  secretion.  They  are  pro- 
tected either  by  a  separate  scale 
which  is  formed  over  them  from 
secretions  of  their  bodies,  but 
not  attached  to  them,  or  by  a 
hardening  of  the  body  wall  it- 
self. Scales  in  the  latter  group 
are  known  as  unarmored  scales 
while  the  others  are  called  ar- 
mored scales.  Scale  insects  feed  for  the  most  part  on 
shrubs  and  woody  plants,  but  some  are  found  on  grasses 


Fig.  40. — San  Jose  Scale  on 
Apple  Bark 


Fig.  41.— The  Tulip  Scale, 


and  on   ferns  and  other  greenhouse  plants.     Mealy  hugs, 
which  are  also  Coccids,  feed  on  herbaceous  plants.     Some 


66 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


of   the   worst   pests   of   the  fruit-growing  industry  are  to 
be  found  in  this  family.     In  the  armored  group  we  have 

the  San  Jose  Scale,  the  Oyster- 
shell  Scale,  the  Rose  Scale  and  a 
host  of  others.  (See  page  287,  Part 
II.)  Among  the  unarmored  forms 
are  the  Cottony-cushion  Scale,  the 
Terrapin  Scale  or  Peach  Lecanium 
and  others.  There  is  scarcely  a 
woody  plant  that  is  not  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  one  or  more 
species  of  scale  insects.  Fortu- 
nately, fairly  effective  means 
have  been  devised  for  the  con- 
trol of  these  insects. 

Plant-lice    are    small    in   size, 

oval    or    egg-shaped,    winged    or 

wingless.     They  live  in   colonies  and  are  often  found    in 

enormous  numbers  on  plants.     They  often  kill  the  leaves 


Fig.  42.— Cottony  Maple- 
scale  on  Leaves  of  Soft 
Maple. 


Fig.  43. — A  Winged  Plant-louse  (Aphididce) .     Greatly  enlarged. 

and  may  do   great    damage.     Some    species   live    on   the 
roots  of  plants  for  at  least  a  part  of  their  life-cycle.    They 


HEMIPTERA 


67 


are  remarkable  for  the  numbers  of  the  plants  they  attack, 
few  groups  of  plants  being  entirely  immune,  and  for 
their  methods  of  reproduction  and  their  fecundity.  In 
this  group  is  illustrated  the  phenomenon  of  partheno- 
genesis or  reproduction  by  the 
females  without  the  intervention 
of  males.  Accompanying  this 
phenomenon  is  another,  alter- 
nation of  generations.  In  brief, 
a  typical  life  cycle  for  an  aphid 
is  as  follows:  In  the  autumn 
or  at  some  other  time  during 
the  year,  true  males  and  females 
appear.  These  mate  and  the 
females  produce  true  eggs,  just 
as  do  insects  of  other  groups. 
These  eggs,  when  they  hatch, 
usually  in  the  spring,  i^roduce 
wingless  females  which  in  turn, 
without  the  intervention  of 
males,  give  birth  to  living  young. 
These,  upon  becoming  grown, 
produce  other  living  young,  all 
females,  and  either  winged  or 
not.  These  forms  are  spoken  of 
as  the  agamic  females.  During 
the  smiimer  the  sexual  individ- 
uals appear  as  noted  above.  The  males  are  either  winged 
or  not,  but  the  true  females,  which  produce  the  winter 
eggs,  never  have  wings.  There  may  be  more  than  a  dozen 
generations  in  a  year  without  any  of  the  sexual  individuals 
and  in  some  species  the  sexual  forms  have  never  been 
found.     The  number  of  progeny  which  might,  theoretically, 


Fig.  44. — Woolly-aphis  on 
Apple  Seedling.  (Photo 
by  W.  E.  Rumsey.) 


68 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


W'lWHiif 


■>^tj^u»-,l'M-i' 


be  descended  from  one  of  the  winter  eggs  if  all  survived 
and  reproduced,  would,  at  the  end  of  the  season  be 
beyond  human  comprehension.  They  are  rivaled  in  fecun- 
dity only  by  some  of  the 
scales  and  by  other  insects, 
notably  the  May-flies. 
Aphids  secrete  from  the 
abdomen  through  the  in- 
testine, a  sweet  sugary 
substance  called  honey- 
dew.  This  honey-dew  is 
a  favorite  food  of  ants  and 
any  plant  infested  by 
aphids  will  be  found  to  be 
frequented  by  ants  which 
are  at  times  accused  of 
doing  the  damage  which  is 
actually  caused  by  the 
plant-lice.  The  ants  do 
sometimes  injure  us  indi- 
rectly on  account  of  their 
fondness  for  the  honey- 
dew.  One  species,  for  example,  cares  for  the  eggs  of  the 
corn-root  aphis  during  the  winter  and  in  the  spring  places 
them  on  the  roots  of  suitable  food  plants.  Many  re- 
markable and  often  fanciful  tales  are  told  of  the  care 
exercised  by  ants  over  their  little  green  "cattle"  as  some 
people  are  pleased  to  term  the  aphids. 

For  further  discussion  of  some  species  and  the  reme- 
dies used,  see  pages  295,  302,  Part  II. 


Fig.  45. — Gall  Formed  by  Plant  Lice 

(Pemphigus  sp.),    on   Leaf   Stem 
of  Cottonwood. 


HEMIPTERA  69 

Table  for  the  Determination  of  Common  Families  of 

HEMIPTERA. 

A.  Front  wings  thicker  at  the  base  than  at  the  tip;  beak  at- 
tached to  the  front  of  the  head.  True  bugs.  Sub-order. 
Heteroptera. 

B.  AntennjB    very    short,    usuall}-    concealed    beneath    the 
head. 
C.  Legs  oar-hke,  fitted  for  swimming. 

D.  Back  somewhat  V-shaped,  hght  in  color.    Back- 
swimmers.     Notonectidoe. 
DD.  Back  more  flattened;   color  darker. 

E.  Size   usually   larger   than    medium.     One-half 
inch  to  over  two  inches.     Giant  Water  Bu^s. 
Belostomidoe. 
EE.  Length  less  than  one-half  inch.     Water  Boat- 
men.    CorisidxB. 
CC.  Legs  not  oar -like  but  very  long  and  slender;    ab- 
domen fitted  with  a  long  breathing  tube  at  the  tip. 
Water  Scorpions.    Nepidcp. 
BB.  Antennse  longer  than  head. 

C.  Bodies  very  slender  or  linear. 
D.  All  legs  long  and  slender. 

E.  Last  joint  of  antenna?  enlarged.     Stilt-bugs. 
Benjtidce. 
EE.  Last  joint  of  antennae  slender. 

F.  Length  about  one-half  inch.     About  water. 
Marsh-treaders.     Limnohalidce. 
FF.  Length  one   inch  or   more.     Not  aquatic. 
Thread-legged  bugs.    Emesidoe. 
DD.  Front-legs  not  used  for  walking  and  shorter  than  the 
others.  Aquatic,  found  running  on  surface  of  water, 
Water-striders.    Hydrobatidce. 
CC.  Bodies  of  broader  shape,  not  linear. 
D.  Antennae  four-jointed. 

E.  Wing-covers  lace-like,  size  small. 

Lace-bugs.     Tingitidce. 


70  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

EE.  Wing  covers  variable  or  absent. 
F.  Beak  three-jointed. 

G.   Common    forms    wingless.     Bedbugs. 
AcanthiulcE. 
GG.  Generally  winged.    Not  resembling  bed- 
bugs. 

H.  Front     femora     greatly     thickened. 
Ambush-bugs.     Phymatidce. 
HH.  Front  femora  not  thickened.     As- 
sassin-bugs.    Redumidce. 
FF.  Beak  four-jointed. 

G.  Front  legs   fitted  for  grasping.     Wings 
rudimentary.     Nabidce. 
GG.  Front  legs  fitted  for  walking. 

H.  Membrane  of  wings  without  cells 
but  with  a  large  number  of  more  or 
less  interwoven  veins.  Coreidce. 
HH.  Membrane  with  few  veins  and  usu- 
ally with  one  or  more  closed  cells 
at  the  base. 

I.  Membrane  with  four  or  five  sim- 
ple veins  and  sometimes  with 
one  cell.  Lygceidce. 
II.  Membrane  with  two  or  three 
cells.  Otherwise  without  veins. 
Leaf-bugs.  Capsidce. 
DD.  Antennse  five-jointed. 

Stink-bugs.     Pentatornidoe. 
(Several  other  minor  families  having  five-jointed  antennae  will 
not  be  mcluded  here.) 

AA.    Front    wings    of    similar    texture    throughout.     Sub-order 
Homoptera. 

B.  Size  large;   length  greater  than  one-half  inch.     Cicadidae. 
BB.  Size  smaller. 

C.  Front   wings   slightly   thickened   or   covered   with   a 
waxy  secretion. 

D.  Prothorax    projecting  backward  over  the  wings. 
Tree-hoppers.     Membracidce,  ^ 


HEMIPTERA  71 

DD.  Prothorax  normal.     Leaf-hoppers.     Jassidee. 
CC.  Wings  entirel.y  membranous  or  lacking. 

D.  Wingless  or  with  only  one  pair  of  wings.  Wing- 
less forms  scale-like  and,  except  in  the  very  early 
stages,  without  power  of  motion.  Scale  insects. 
Coccidoe. 
DD.  Wingless  or  with  two  pairs  of  wings.  All  stages 
active.     Plant-lice.     Aphididoe. 


CHAPTER  IX 
LEPmOPTERA 

45.  General  Characteristics.  The  order  Lepidoptera 
includes  those  insects  which  are  commonly  known  as 
moths,  millers  and  butterflies.  They  are  recognized  by 
their  four  wings,  usually  rather  broad,  which  are  covered 
with  very  fine  powdery  scales.  These  scales  also  cover 
the  bodies  of  the  moths  and,  in  part,  the  butterflies. 
Moths  and  butterflies  have  indirect  development,  the 
young  forms  being  known  as  caterpillars.  Caterpillars, 
like  other  larvae,  are  worm-like,  but  may  be  distinguished 
from  all  other  common  larvae  by  the  fact  that  they  pos- 
sess three  pairs  of  true  legs  on  the  thoracic  segments,  and, 
in  addition  to  these,  at  least  one  pair  and  usually  as 
many  as  five  pairs  of  pro-legs.  The  only  other  common 
insects  which  have  pro-legs  are  the  larvae  of  the  sawflies 
and  these  always  have  more  than  five  pairs.  (From 
six  to  eight  pairs.     See  Sawflies,  page  154.) 

46.  Moths  and  Butterflies  distinguished.  Moths  and 
butterflies  are  easily  distinguished  from  each  other  by  sev- 
eral characters.  The  most  constant  of  these  is  the  form 
of  the  antennae.  In  the  butterflies  these  are  always  en- 
larged at  the  tips  or  clubbed.  In  the  moths  they  are 
never  clubbed,  although  they  may  have  various  forms, 
some  being  thread-like,  and  some  feathery. 

There  are  no  characters  by  means  of  which  the  larvae 
of  the  two  groups  may  readily  be  separated,  but  the  pupae 
are  quite  different.     Pupae  of  moths  are  generally  smooth 

72 


LEPIDOPTERA 


73 


Fig.  46. — Early  Stages  of  Lepidoptera.     Two-thirds  natural  size. 

1,  Larva  of  Imperial  moth;  2,  Half-grown  larva  of  Regal  moth;  3,  larva  of  the 
Eyed  Tiger-moth;  4,  larva  and  pupa  of  a  .Sphinx  moth;  5,  Tussock-moth  larva; 
6,  small  Cutworm;  7,  Bagworm  coooon;  8,  Cocoon  of  Regal  moth;  9,  Chrysalis 
of  a  Papilio;    10,  Cocoon  of  Cecropia  moth. 


74 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


and  are  usually  enclosed  in  some  kind  of  cocoon  or,  at 


«$<^ 


Fig.    47.— Sphinx    Moth    with 
Mouth-parts  Extended. 


least,  in  an  earthen  cell. 
Those  of  butterflies  are  either 
angular  or  smooth,  but  are 
never  enclosed  in  cocoons. 
They  are  generally  suspended 
by  a  button  of  silk  at  the 
tip  end  of  the  abdomen  and 
a  silken  girdle  about  the 
middle  of  the  body  or  by 
the  button  alone,  from  some 
twig,  branch,  or  weed.  Some 
forms  seek  protection  from 
the  weather  and  may  be  found 
mider  trash  in  the  winter, 
but  many  are  in  exposed  sit- 
uations. 

Adults  in  this  order  have 
sucking  mouth-parts,  often 
poorly  developed,  formed 
from  the  maxillae,  which  are 
elongated  and  grooved  on  the 
inner  faces  which  join  and 
form  the  sucking  tube.  In 
some  moths  this  sucking  tube 
is  much  longer  than  the  in- 
sect itself.  It  is  usually  not 
adapted  to  piercing  but  is  used 
to  suck  up  Hquids  hke  the 
nectar  from  flowers,  the  juice 
from  rotting  fruits  or  from 
even  less  attractive  substances. 
The    larvse    have    chewing 


LEPIDOPTERA 


75 


uiouth-parts  and  are  voracious 
feeders.  They  attack  a  great  va- 
riety of  substances  ranging  from, 
the  most  succulent  foUagc  to  dried 
grains  and  wood  of  trees.  Many 
are  of  great  importance  to  farm- 
ing and  to  other  industries.  The 
adults  are  rarely  of  direct  impor- 
tance but  are  of  great  popular  in- 
terest. 

47.  Micro-Lepidoptera.  Three 
extensive  super-families  of  moths 
are  commonly  grouped  together 
under  this  heading  on  account  of 
their  general  similarity  and  small 
size.  In  contra-distinction  to  these 
all  other  Lepidoptera  are  called 
the  "Macro-Lepidoptera." 

The  famihes  or  super-families 
comprising  this  group  all  contain 
species  of  considerable  importance. 
Some  of  these  may  be  used  to 
illustrate  the  families.  The  first 
of  the  groups  is  the  Pyralidina. 
The  moths  in  this  group  are  often 
fairly  large  for  "Micros."  Their 
wings  are  usually  rather  regular 
in  outline  and  often  folded  or 
rolled  about  the  body  when  at 
rest.  The  larvae  have  a  great  diver- 
sity of  food  habits.     Many  of  them 

Fig.  48. — Types  of  Moths.     Micro-Lepi- 
doptera.     Natural  size. 


76  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

feed  on  leaves  and  roll  or  fold  the  leaves  for  protection,  thus 
acquiring  the  name  Leaf-rollers,  which  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  family  as  a  whole.  Others  feed  on  leaves  without 
rolUng  them  and  still  others  feed  on  fruits  or  vegetables. 
Several  species  feed  on  stored  grains  and  their  products 
and  are  among  the  most  serious  of  the   pests  attacking 

these     substances. 

;  Among  the  more  im- 

f'  portant   Pyralids    are 

/  the   Mediterranean 

^Pl^^^^""--^ '' i^^^^l^P         Flour-moth,*  which 

^1^  Z!IPI^|^Bb||P5^.:4|^  feeds  mainly  in  wheat 

^  ^t  s  *fr'       j^  products    in    flouring 

^V>.         m    -^n^^  mills;      the    Indian 

meal-moth,*  of  habits 
somewhat  similar  to 
the  preceding  species; 

Fig.  49.— Melon-worm  moth.     One  of  the     the  Meal  Snout-moth, 
Larger  Pyralidina.      Enlarged.  larger  than  the  others 

and  feeding  on  a 
greater  variety  of  products;  the  clover-hay  worm,  which 
injures  old  clover  hay  in  mows  or  in  the  bottoms  of 
stacks;  the  melon-worm  and  the  pickle-worm,  two  rather 
large  and  strikingly  colored  species  which  attack  melons 
and  other  plants  in  the  same  family;  the  Grape  Leaf- 
folder;  the  bee-moth;  Case  Bearers  and  many  species  of 
leaf-rollers. 

The  Tortricina  are  uniformly  small,  having  wings 
usually  cut  off  more  squarely  at  the  ends  than  the  other 
"Micros"  and  frequently  having  the  wing  margins  scal- 
loped. When  at  rest  they  show  an  outline  more  nearly 
rectangular  than  the  other  families  in  the  group.  Among 
*  See  page  230,  Part  IL 


A\ 


LEPIDOPTERA 


77 


Fig.  50.— The  Codling  Moth,  a  Type  of 
Tortricina      Greatly  Enlarged. 


the  Tortricids  are  some  species  even  more  important  than 
in  the  foregoing  family.  The  most  widely  known  of  these 
is  the  Codling-moth  or  the  apple-worm.  (See  page  319, 
Part  II.) 

Other  Tortricids  are  the  Bud-moth,  which  injures  the 
early  shoots  of  the  apple  in   the  spring;  the  Strawberry 
Leaf -roller     and 
other,    so-called 
leaf-folders    and 
leaf-crumplers. 

The  Tineina 
are  the  smallest 
of  the  Lepidop- 
tera.  They  may 
be  recognized  by 
their  narrow 
w.'ngs  fringed 
with  long  hairs.  Most  of  the  plant  eaters  in  this 
family  are  leaf-miners,  feeding  between  the  two  epi- 
dermal layers  of  the  leaf  and  forming  mines  of  various 
shapes,  often  characteristic  of  the  species.  Very  few 
common  plants  are  not  subject  to  the  attacks  of  at  least 
one  species  of  leaf-miners,  although  not  many  are  seri- 
ously injured  by  such  attacks.  The  Tineids  which  prob- 
ably attract  the  most  notice  are  the  common  Clothes  Moths.  * 
There  are  several  species  of  these,  but  they  are  similar  in 
their  general  appearance.  They  may  be  best  controlled 
by  placing  all  clothing  made  of  woolens,  silk,  feathers  and 
fur,  in  a  large  goods  box  with  a  tight  lid,  preferably  on 
a  back  porch  and  fumigating  with  carbon  bi-sulphide 
at  the  rate  of  one-half  pound  to  the  hundred  cubic 
feet  of  space.  Leave  the  clothes  in  the  box  for  twenty- 
*  See  page  220,  Part  II. 


78 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


-/•f\  -' 


four  hours,  air 
them  and  replace 
in  the  closets,  which 
should  have  been 
cleaned  and  sprin- 
kled with  benzine 
in  the  meantime. 
Repeat  this  opera- 
tion twice,  at  in- 
tervals of  three 
weeks,  and  clothes 
moth  work  will  be 
eliminated.  Car- 
bon bisulphide  is 
explosive  but  is  safe 
if  handled  Uke  gas- 
oUne. 

The  Angoumois 
Grain-moth  is  a  Tin- 
eid  and  works  in 
grain,  both  stored 
and  in  the  field. 
In  stored  grain  it, 
as  well  as  the  other 
moths  mentioned, 
may   be  destroyed 

Fig.  51. — Types  of 
Moths.     Reduced. 

1,  Eyed-Tiger-moth 
{ArctiidfE) ;  2,  3,  Carpenter- 
moths  (Cossidce);  4,  Siug- 
caterpillar  moth  (Eudei- 
dce)  ;  5,  Tent-caterpillar 
moth  (Lasiocampidce) ,  6  • 
7,  8,  Clear-wing  moths, 
(Sesiidm). 


LEPIDOPTERA  79 

by  fumigation  as  for  the   clothes  moth.     (See  page  231, 
Part  II). 

48.  Sesiidae  and  Cossidae.  Two  families  of  moths  have 
wood-boring  larvae  ])ut  are  otherwise  distinct.  The  Ses- 
iids  are  rather  small,  have  very  slender  bodies  and  narrow 
wings  often  almost  entirely  free  from  scales  for  which 
reason  the  moths  are  commonly  called  the  clear-wings; 
many  of  them  look  much  like  wasps.  The  ever-present 
and  destructive  Peach-tree  Borer*  is  the  most  common  mem- 
ber of  this  family.  Others  are  the  Squash-vine  Borer,  the 
Currant-borer,  the  Lilac-borer,  a  small  species  on  maple,  and 
many  others.  There  is  no  good  remedy  for  these  insects 
when  they  are  numerous. 

CossidcB  are  commonly  called  Carpenter  Moths  on  ac- 
count of  the  habits  of  the  larvae.  They  are  large,  stout- 
bodied,  have  rather  long  and  narrow  fore-wings  and  small 
hind-wings.  There  are  few  species  and  they  bore  mostly 
in  locust  and  other  shade  and  forest  trees. 

The  larvae  in  both  the  above  families  are  typical  cater- 
pillars, usually  white  in  color.  The  Cossid  larvae  are 
sometimes  somewhat  hairy  while  the  Sesiids  are  rarely 
noticeably  so. 

49.  Noctuidae.  This  family  is  the  largest  in  the  order, 
not  in  size  of  the  individual  but  in  the  number  of  species 
and  of  individuals.  It  also  contains  a  greater  number  of 
destructive  forms  than  any  other  family.  A  few  species 
are  quite  large;  others  are  as  small  as  some  of  the  "Mi- 
cros," but  the  great  majority  are  of  medium  size.  A  few 
are  brightly  colored  and  striking  in  appearance  but  many 
more  are  of  dull,  inconspicuous  colors.  The  great  major- 
ity of  the  moths,  which  are  attracted  to  light  and,  under 
the    appellation   of  millers,   invite   our   commiseration  for 

*  See  page  297,  Part  II,  peach-tree  borers. 


80 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


their    singed    wings    and   suggest   one   of  our  most  time- 
honored  metaphors  of  the  candle  and  the  moth,  are  Noctuids. 

On  a  window  in  a  dark  night 
their  eyes  appear  luminous 
from  the  Hghted  room.  This 
gives  rise  to  a  name  frequently 
used,  "  Fiery-eyes."  Others 
call  them  "Owlet-moths,"  but 
it  is  simpler  to  speak  of  them 
as  Noctuids  and  thus  to  elim- 
inate an  unnecessary  name 
which  adds  Httle  to  the  de- 
scription. If  the  adults  in 
this  family  are  familiar  objects, 
the  larvae  are  no  less  so. 
Among  the  common  ones  may 
be  listed  the  various  species  of 
cutworms.  (See  page  286,  Part 
II.)  The  Army-worms  so 
called  because  of  their  habit 
of  traveling,  when  numer- 
ous, from  field  to  field  in 
large  bodies,  Hke  armies;  the 
Corn  Earworm  (see  page  253, 
Part  II),  known  to  every  cook 
that  ever  prepared  "roasting 
ears,"  except  in  the  far  north, 
and  known  on  other  plants 
under  different  names  such 
as  the  "cotton  boll-worm," 
Fig.  62.-Types  of  Lepidoptera  the  "  tomato  fruit-worm," 
Moths.  Reduced  one-third.  "  tobacco  bud-worm,"  etc.; 
Noluidi^^'''^'  ^°^°'^°''^''^'^''  °'^"''      the  Cotton-worm  (see  page  257, 


LEPIDOPTERA 


81 


Part  II),  injurious  to  cotton  in  the  South,  but  in  the 
adult  stage  more  or  less  familiar  to  the  people  of  the 
North,  whither  it  migrates  in  countless  numbers  in  the 
fall  of  the  year.  One  of  the  cabbage  worms,  the  Cabbage 
looper*  is  a  Noctuid,  and  to  complete  the  list  would 
require  the  mention  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  two 
thousand  species  which  exist 
in  our  fauna. 

Larvae  of  NoctuidiE  may  be 
for  the  most  part  very  well 
illustrated  by  the  common  cut- 
worms, dull  colored,  smooth  or 
even  greasy  in  appearance,  an 
inch  or  more  long  and  nearly 
as  thick  as  a  lead  pencil,  vora- 
cious feeders  appearing  mostly 
at  night  and  remaining  con- 
cealed during  the  day. 

A  few  species  in  this  group 
are  larger  and  of  rather  striking 
appearance.  Notable  among 
these  are  the  Catocalas.  These 
expand  from  two  to  three 
inches,  have  dull-colored  fore- 
wings  which  are  often  almost 
indistinguishable  from  the  bark  upon  which  they  usually 
rest,  and  brilliantly  marked  hind  wings,  different  shades  of 
red  and  yellow  bands  alternating  with  black  or  gray. 

50.  Arctiidae.     The   Tiger-moths  are    not    so    abundant 

as  the  Noctuids,   there  being  comparatively  few  species, 

but  they  are  likely  to  attract  nearly  as  much  attention  on 

account  of  the  more  striking  appearance  of  both  adults 

*  See  page  284,  Part  II,  cabbage  caterpillars. 


Fig.  53. — Underwiiig  Moths 
{Noctuidce).  Reauced  one 
half. 


82 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


and  larvae.  The  adults  are  moderate  sized  moths  with 
the  wings  rather  narrower  and  more 
pointed  than  those  of  the  Noc- 
tuids.  Otherwise  they  are  similar 
in  the  conformation  of  the  bodies. 
In  color  the  tiger-moths  are  either 
light  or  strongly  marked.  Some 
are  pure  white,  some  white  with 
yellow,  black  or  red  markings; 
some,  the  typical  tiger-moths,  are 
black,  marked  with  red  or  orange 
bands  and  spots. 

Larvae  of  Ardiidce  are  hairy 
caterpillars  which  have  colors  of 
about  the  same  range  as  those 
shown  by  the  adults.  Few  species 
are  injurious.  The  most  important 
one  is  the  Fall  Weh-worm  which 
feeds  on  foliage  of  shade  and  fruit 
trees  in  late  summer  and  early  fall 
and  forms  unsightly  webs  over  the 
ends  of  branches,  the  worms  living 
in  colonies  within  these  webs. 
Ij^*^^^*^,,,,-'"**'''^  The    most    commonly    noticed 

'"^  of  the  Arctiid  larvae  is  the  larva 

of  the  Isabslla  Tiger-moth.  This  is 
a  red  and  black,  hairy  caterpillar 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length 
which  is  seen  in  the  fall  hurrying 
about  from  place  to  place.  It  is  so 
common  that  it  has  given  rise  to  the 
saying  "Hurrying  like  a  caterpillar  in  the  fall."  It  is  also 
supposed   by  many  people  to  foretell  the  nature   of  the 


Fig.  54.— Types  of  Moths 

{Arfiiidce).     Reduced. 

1,  Isabella  Tiger-moth;  2, 
the  Tiger-moth;  3,  the  Acraea 
moth;  4,  the  Tessellated 
Tiger-moth;  5,  the  Clymene 
moth. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


83 


approaching  winter,  the  varying  amount  and  distribution 
of  the  black  color  indicating  a  mild  winter  or  the  reverse. 
Other  tiger-moth  larvae  are 
common  at  the  same  season 
but  they  are  found  on  the 
foliage  of  several  weeds. 

51.  Notodontidae.     The 
members  of  this  family  also 


Fig.  55. — Larva  of  the  Isabella 
Tiger-moth. 


common  among 
the    genus    Da- 


in  many  ways  resemble  the 
Noctuids.  The  number  of 
species  is  comparatively 
small  and  few  are  injurious.  The  most 
the  Notodontids  are  the  members  of 
tana,  of  which  there  are 
several  species.  They  are 
noticed  in  the  larval  stage 
when  they  are  variously 
called  "  walnut-worms," 
"maple-worms"  and  "yel- 
low-necked apple-caterpil- 
lars.'.' It  is  just  as  easy  and 
much  more  distinctive  to 
speak  of  them  as  D  at  anas 
and  the  generic  name  is 
quite  widely  used  as  a  com- 
mon name.  Datana  moths 
are  of  moderate  size,  and 
of  light-brown  color,  marked 
with    narrow    bands     of 

darker  brown.  Their  wings  have  scalloped  outer  margins. 
The  larvae,  when  full  grown,  are  dark  in  color  but  are 
marked  with  several  narrow  yellow  stripes  running  the  length 
of  the  body,  and  with  a  patch  of  yellow  just  back  of  the  head. 


Fir,.  56. — Larvae  of  a  Datana  Moth 
(Yellow-necked  Apple-caterpillars). 


84 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Still  more  distinctive  as 
the  resting  position. 
Both  ends  of  the  body 
are  raised  so  that  the 
side  view  of  the  insect 
presents  an  outline  al- 
most semicircular,  which 
renders  it  very  easy 
to  recognize.  These 
larvse  may  often  be  found 
in  great  clusters  in  the 
forks  of  branches  where 
they  go  to  moult.  They 
are  most  abundant  in 
late  summer  and  occa- 
sionally are  seriously 
injurious.  (See  page  315, 
Part  II,  for  further  de- 
scription.) 

52.  Liparidae.  Stu- 
dents will  generally  en- 
counter only  one  or  two 
members  of  this  family. 
These  are  the  Tussock- 
moths.  The  more  com- 
mon species  is  the  White- 
marked  Tussock-moth.  Its 


Fig.  57.— Types  of  Moths. 
Slightly  reduced. 

1,  2,  and  3,  Notodontidoe;  4, 
Eight-spotted  forester  {Agaris- 
tidce);  5,  Beautiful  wood  nymph 
(Agaristidce) ;  6,  Tussock-moth 
(Liparidce);  7,  Lithosiidm. 


LEPIDOPTERA  85 

most  conspicuous  period  is  during  the  larval  stage.  The 
larva  feeds  on  several  common  shade  trees  as  well  as  on 
some  fruit  trees.  It  is  light  in  color  and  bears  several 
characteristic  tufts  of  hair.  One  row  of  these,  down  the 
middle  of  the  back,  is  composed  of  short  white  hairs  growing 
in  dense  tufts.  Just  back  of  the  head  is  a  pair  of  long 
pencils  of  blackish  hairs  while  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body  a  single  similar  pencil  is  found.  Other  scattered 
hairs  are  all  over  the  body.  Just  back  of  the  head,  between 
the  base,  of  the  black  pencils,  is  a  bright  red  band  and 
the  head  itself  is  reddish  in  color.  These  larvse  make 
cocoons  composed  partly  of  their  own  hairs  and  attached 
to  leaves.  The  females  are  wingless  and  deposit  their  eggs 
in  masses  on  the  outside  of  the  cocoons  where  they  may 
be  found  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

In  the  New  England  states  the  two  worst  insect  pests, 
the  Gypsy  moth  and  the  Brown-tail  moth,  are  the  common 
representatives  of  this  family.  They  are  so  well  known, 
where  they  occur,  that  they  do  not  need  description  here. 
They  are  not  native  American  insects,  but  were  brought 
over  from  Europe  and  were  accidentally  liberated. 

53.  Agaristidae  and  Lithosiidae.  The  Agaristidce  and 
the  Lithosiidce  are  two  families  which  compare  in  gen- 
eral outline  and  proportions  with  the  Noctuids.  There 
are  few  species,  not  of  great  importance,  which  may 
attract  the  attention  of  the  beginner  on  account  of  the 
striking  beautj^  of  their  forms.  Among  these,  in  the  first 
family,  are  the  Eight-spotted  Forester,  black,  with  eight  yel 
low  spots  on  the  wings,  below  medium  size  and  feeding, 
in  the  larval  stage,  on  various  vines,  as  grape  and  Virginia 
creeper;  and  the  Beautiful  Wood-Jiymph,  a  still  more 
striking  species,  which  may  be  recognized  from  the  figure. 
(See  Fig.  57,  4  and  5,  page  84.) 


86 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  f  amil}'  Lithosiidce  will 
probably  be  encountered  in 
the  form  of  one  small  spe- 
cies, which  is  colored  a  deli- 
cate, though  somewhat  faded, 
pinkish  red,  and  striped  with 
black.  There  is  no  really- 
appropriate  common  name 
for  this  insect. 

54.  Geometridse.  This 
family  is  well  known  to  all. 
The  larvse,  variously  called 
"span-worms,"  "inch- 
worms  "  and  "  measuring- 
worms,"  were  among  the 
earliest  of  our  insect  friends. 
Their  presence  upon  our 
clothing  was  welcomed  as 
presaging  new  clothes  and 
we  were  not  even  squeamish 
about  letting  them  crawl  on 
our  fingers.  They  lack  the 
three  pairs  of  pro-legs  in 
the  middle  of  the  body  and 
so  must  travel  by  looping 
themselves  along,  hence, 
another  common  name  the 
"loopers."  They  are  the  most 
glender  of  the  caterpillars, 
are    frequently    green,    but 


Fig.  58.— Types  of  Moths   {Geo- 
metrina).     Slightly  reduced. 


LEPIDOPTERA  87 

often  striped  and  sometimes  colored  to  imitate  twigs  or 
stems  where  they  rest,  so  that  they  appear,  when  stand- 
ing straight  out  from  the  resting  place,  as  is  their  habit, 
like  little  spurs  from  the  twigs. 

There  are  many  species  of  the  loopers  and  several  are 
distinctly  injurious.  The  adults  have  slender  bodies  and 
usually  rather  broad  and  very  thin  wings,  the  appearance 
indicating  delicacy  and  frailness  quite  different  from  the 
more  robust  Noctuid-hke  forms  in  the  preceding  families. 
Their  colors  are  usually  sober  but  not  dark.  The  light 
grays  predominate  but  not  a  few  are  green.  The  fore- 
wings  are  frequently  scalloped. 

Important  species  are  the  Canker-worms  *  injurious  on 
orchard  and  shade  trees,  and  loopers  which  feed  on  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  raspberries  and  many  other  plants  and 
quite  frequently  are  named  for  the  plants  on  which  they 
feed, 

Bagworms  (Psychidce)  are  represented  by  one  or  two 
common  species  only.  The  most  common  one  of  these  is 
the  Evergreen  Bagworm  which  feeds  on  apple,  and  on 
junipers,  maples,  locusts,  and  many  other  shade  trees. 
The  males  are  small,  clear-winged  moths  which  are  seldom 
seen.  The  insect  will  be  identified  by  the  bag  which  it 
makes  and  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  life  is  spent. 
The  females  never  leave  the  bags  but  deposit  their  eggs 
within  them  and  die.  Young  larvae  make  small  cone- 
shaped  bags,  which  they  "wear"  all  the  time,  enlarging 
them  as  they  grow,  finally  attaching  them  to  twigs  and 
pupating  within  them.  The  figure  will  enable  the  reader 
to  recognize  the  insect.  This  species  is  often  seriously 
injurious.  A  smaller  species  feeds  on  maples  and  is  less 
conspicuous  and  troublesome. 

*See  page  311,  Part  II. 


88 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Slug-caterpillars  {Euclei- 
dce)  represent  another  rather 
small  family  which  is  known 
much  better  through  its 
larvae  than  through  the 
moths.  The  moths  are  usu- 
ally dark  colored,  though 
some  species  are  marked 
with  rich  greens  and  are 
very  beautiful.  The  larvae 
are  not  like  ordinary  cater- 
pillars, but  the  legs  are 
reduced  in  size  so  much 
that  the  insect  crawls  on 
the  under  surface  of  its 
Fig.  59.-Cocoons  of  the  Bag-worm  ^^^  ^^^^i  Hke  the  common 
Moth  {Psychida-).  .     ^  ^^         rj.. 

slug     or    a     snail.       ihese 

slug-caterpillars  are  usually 
brightly  colored  and  take 
the  most  bizarre  shapes. 
All  are  small.  One  species 
is  clothed  with  spines  that 
are  slightly  poisonous  and 
irritating.  This  is  the  "sad- 
dle-back," so-called  from 
the  marking  on  the  back 
which  suggests  a  green  sad- 
dle on  a  rich,  dark  reddish 
saddle-cloth.  It  feeds  mainly 
on  apple  and  some  orna- 
mental shrubs. 
Fig.  60. — Nest  of  Tent-caterpil-  m     ^      ^       -n  /t      • 

1       ,r     .  .,s     p, „^^  Tent-catermUars     (Lasio- 

lars  {Lastocmnptdce) .     Compare  ^  ^ 

with  Fig.  61.    Reduced.  campidce)  are  represented  by 


LEPIDOPTERA 


89 


one  or  two  species  and  may  be  injurious.  A  description  of 
the  most  important  species  will  be  found  on  page  313, 
Part  II. 

55.  Sphingidae.  The  Sphingidm  are  commonlj^  called 
sphinx  moths,  hawk-moths,  and  humming-bird  moths. 
The    first    name,     as    also    the    family     name,    is    sug- 


^^- 


Fig.  61.— Nest  of  Fall-web- 
worms  in  Small  Apple  Tree 
{Arctiidcp) .     Reduced. 


Fig.  62. — Larvae  of  the  Catalpa 
Sphinx.     Reduced. 


gested  bj'  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  larvae  of  this 
family,  in  their  characteristic  resting  position,  to  the  Eygp- 
tian  sphinx.  The  adults  are  large,  have  stout  bodies  of 
regular  shape,  the  abdomen  resembling  a  long  and  sharply 
pointed  bullet,  and  have  wings  which  are  long,  narrow 
and  powerful.     The  general  appearance  and  graceful  flight 


90 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


gives  rise  to  the  name  Hawk-moth.  From  their  feeding 
habits  comes  the  name  Humming-bird  moth.  They  have 
extremely  long  tongues,  adapted  for  sucking  nectar  from 
the  deepest  flowers,  like  honeysuckles  and  morning-glories. 
As  the  weight  of  these  moths'  bodies  would  not  be  sup- 
ported by  the  flowers  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  hover 
or  poise  in  the  air  over  the  flowers  while  they  feed.  They 
may  be  seen  at  twilight  on  any  summer  evening  and  are 
also  attracted  to  the  electric  lights.     The  larvae  are  large, 


Fig.  63. — The  Tomato-worm  Sphinx  Larvae.     Greatly  reduced. 


have  stout  fleshy  bodies  and  usually  have  a  backward 
projecting  horn  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body.  They 
are  sometimes  called  Horn-worms.  At  rest  they  hold  the 
front  end  of  the  body  up  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  ab- 
domen and  remain  motionless  for  long  periods.  The  most 
common  examples  are  the  Horn-worms  which  attack  to- 
matoes and  tobacco.*  The  White-lined  Sphinx  and  the 
Clear-wing  Sphinx  are  also  abundant. 

*  See  page  278,  Part  IL 


LEPIDOPTERA 


91 


56.  Saturniina.  This  super-family  includes  the  largest 
of  the  coninion  moths.  There  are  several  families.  The 
Bombycidce  includes  the 
Mulberry  Silk-ivorm, 
which  has  been  domestic- 
ated and  furnishes  the  silk 
of  connncrce.  The  insect 
is  no  longer  found  in  the 
wild  state.  It  is  reared 
in  China  and  Japan,  in 
India  and  in  the  Medi- 
terranean countries,  no- 
tably France  and  Italy. 
The  silk  industry  has 
been  started  in  the 
United  States,  but  has 
not  proven  profitable, 
largely  on  account  of  the 
high  cost  of  labor,  the 
worms  requiring  con- 
stant  care. 

Several  of  our  most 
showy  moths  belong  to 
the  Saturniidce,  or  giant - 
silk-worm  family. 
Among  these  are  the 
Cecropia,  the  Polyphe- 
mus, the  Promethea,  the 
/o,  the  smallest  of  the 
common  species,  and  the 
Luna.  The  latter  is  of 
a  delicate  green  color,  large  size,  and  possesses  on 
the   hind   wings   long   and   graceful^   curved   tails   which 


Fig.  64. — Types  of  Moths  (Sphingidce). 
Reduced. 

1,  The  Modest  sphinx;  2,  Achemon  sphinx; 
3,  Pandorus  sphinx;  4,  Tomato-worm  moth; 
6,  the  Lined  sphinx;   6,  Tersa  sphinx. 


92 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


make  it   easily  the  most  striking   of  the   moths   in   ap- 
pearance. 

The  Ceratocampidce  are   called  the   Royal  Moths  and 

include  the  Regal  moth, 
probably  the  largest  of 
the  whole  group,  the  larvae 
of  whichis  called  theTraZ- 
nut-worm  or  the  "hickory 
horned-devil,"  and  the 
Imperial-moth.  Th^Regal 
is  of  a  rich,  reddish  brown 
color,  splotched  with  yel- 
low, while  the  imperial  is 
yellow  with  variable  pur- 
plish-brown shadings. 
Both  have  rather  nar- 
rower fore-wings  than 
the  Saturniids.  Smaller 
species  of  this  family  are 
the  Rosy  Dryocampa  and 
the  Senator. 

With  the  exception 
of  the  Rosy  Dryocampa 
and  the  Cecropia,  which 
are  sometimes  injurious 
to  shade  trees,  none  of 
these  species  can  be  con- 
sidered of  economic  im- 
portance, but  the  family 
will,  nevertheless,  remain 

Fig.  65.-Types  of  Moths  {Salurmida').     One  most  generally  inter- 
Reduced,  esting  on  account  of  the 
8.  pVomeTh?irmaie°'  ^'  ^^^^P^'^^^'^  *'  ^'""^=     large  sizc  of  its  members. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


93 


57.  Butterflies.  Butterflies  comprise  two  super-famil- 
ies, the  Papilionina  or  true  Butterflies  and  the  Hesperiina 
or  Skippers.  They  differ  from  moths  in  the  antennal 
characters  ah-eady  mentioned,  in  the  fashion  of  holding 
the  wings  while  at  rest  and  in  the  fact  that  they  fly  ex- 
clusively  in    daytime    while   moths   usually   fly   at   night. 


Fig.  66. — Larva  of  Polyphemus 
Moth.    Reduced. 


Fig.  67. — Stages  of  the  Mulberry 
Silk-worm  Moth.     Reduced. 


Other  characters  are  less  tangible  but  are,  to  the  expert, 
no  less  distinctive.  Skippers  usually  have  the  antennal 
club  ending  in  a  hook.  They  have  an  erratic,  jerky 
method  of  flight  and  when  at  rest  usually  hold  the  hind 
wings  horizontal  while  the  front  wings  are  held  ver- 
tical, like  the  wings  of  the  true  butterflies,  and  the  bod- 
ies give  the  impression  of  being  stouter  and  more  hairy. 


94 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Their  larvse  may  be  recognized  by  the  fact  that  tlie 
bodies  are  very  much  constricted  behind  the  head  and  so 
have  distinct  necks. 


Fig.  68. — Types  of  Moths  (CitheroniidcE) .     Reduced. 

a.  Regal;   b.  Imperial;   c,  Honey-locust  Moth;   d.  Stigma  Moth;   e,  Rosy  Maple- 
moth. 

58.  Papilionidae.    The  Swallow-tails  comprise,  with  a  less 
common  group  Parnassians,  the  family  Papilionidce.     They 


LEPIDOPTERA 


95 


may  easily  be  recognized,  as  they  are  the  largest  of  our  lout- 
terflies,  and  have  tail-like  projections  on  the  hind  wings. 
The  larvae  have  scent  organs  on  the  first  thoracic  seg- 
ment. These  are  two  orange-red,  horn-shaped,  extrusible 
structures  which  are 
thrust  out  when  the 
insect  is  disturbed.  They 
give  off  a  strong  and  un- 
usual, but  not  exactly 
unpleasant,  odor.  Swal- 
low-tail pupse  or  chrys- 
ahds  are  supported  Ijy 
the  button  of  silk  at  the 
tail  end  and  by  the  gir- 
dle around  the  middle. 
They  are  angular  and 
have  two  short  projec- 
tions at  the  front  end 
of  the  body.  Swallow- 
tail larvae  are  rarely  nu- 
merous enough  to  be  in- 
jurious. 

The  species  common 
over  the  greater  part  of 
the  eastern  United  States 
are  few  in  number. 
The  Black  Swallow-tail 
is  probably  the  most 
common    and    is    the 

smallest.  Its  larvae  feed  on  celery,  rue,  parsley  and  sim- 
ilar plants.  The  ground  color  is  black  and  on  the  hind 
wings  are  numerous  yellow  spots  and  some  shading  with 
light   metallic   blue.     The  Tiger  Swallow-tail  or  Turnus  is 


Fig.  69. — Larvse  of  the  Rosy  Maple- 
moth.     Reduced. 


96 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


the  largest  common 
species.  The  color 
is  yellow  with  black 
markings  except  in 
certain  females, 
which  may  be  black. 
They  are  distin- 
guishable from  the 
''Black  Swallow- 
tail" by  their  larger 
size.  Ajax  or  the 
Zebra  is  a  showy 
species  with  white 
wings  striped  with 
black  and  marked 
with  red.  The  tails 
are  longer  and  nar- 
rower in  this  species 
than  in  the  others 
and  it  is  otherwise 
unmistakable.  The 
larvae  feed  on  paw- 
paw. 

Troilus  is  black 
with  olive  green 
shading  on  the  hind 
wings.  It  has  no 
pure  yellow  markings 


Fig.  70.— Types  of  But- 
terflies (Papilionidoe) . 
Reduced  one-half. 

a,  Papilio  philenor;  b,  P. 
turnus;  c,  P.  ajax;  d,  Par- 
nassius  sp. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


97 


above.  The  tails  are 
more  rounded  in  this 
species  than  in  the 
others. 

Philenor  is  black  on 
the  fore  wings  but  the 
hinds  wings  are  the  color 
of  green  "changeable" 
silk  above  and  of  green- 
ish-blue silk  spotted  with 
large  orange-red  spots 
below.  It  also  is  un- 
mistakable. 

Cresphontes  is  com- 
mon in  the  more  south- 
ern portions  of  the 
country.  It  is  the  largest 
of  our  butterflies  and  is, 
in  general,  black  with 
conspicuous  yellow 
markings  above,  while 
it  is  yellow  with  black 
markings  beneath.  It 
is  a  very  handsome  and 
show}^  insect.  Its  larva 
feeds  on  citrus  trees  in  the 
South,  where  it  is  called 
the  "orange  puppy," 

Fig.  71.— Types  of  Butter- 
flies. {Pajpilionidis) .  Re- 
duced one-half. 

a,  Papilio  turnus  glaucus:  b, 
P.  troilus;  c,  d,  P.  polyxenes;  e, 
P.  cresphontes. 


98 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


In    the    northern    part  of  its   range  it    feeds  on    prickly 
ash  {Xanthoxylon) . 

59.  Pieridae.  This  group  includes  all  our  common  yel- 
low and  white  butterflies.     They  are  mostly  of  medium 

to  small  size  and  may  at 
times  be  injurious.  There  are 
many  species,  but  only  a  few 
which  are  important.  The 
larvse  are  usually  green  and 
are  not  conspicuous.  The  pupae 
resemble  those  of  the  Papilios, 
but  have  only  one  pointed 
projection  from  the  anterior 
end  of  the  body  and  are,  of 
course,  smaller.  The  best- 
known  species  is  the  ''imported 
cabbage-worm"  or  Cabbage 
Butterfly*  There  are  other 
native  and  imported  species 
which  closely  resemble  this 
one  in  general  appearance  and 
habits. 

The  more  common  yellows 
are  the  Clover  Butterflies  or 
"  sulphurs  "  of  which  there  are 
many  species.  Their  larvse  may 
be  found  in  clover  fields  and  one  species  seems  to  be 
becoming  a  pest  in  alfalfa  fields.  Several  kinds,  smaller 
than  the  ordinary  clover  butterflies  may  be  noted.  Among 
these  will  be  the  Dainty  Sulphur.  The  largest  of  our  Pierids 
is  a  beautiful  insect  with  wings  of  pure  unmarked  sulphur 
yellow,  It  is  called  the  Cloudless  sulphur.  Another 
*  See  page  282,  Part  II. 


Fig    72. — Larva  of  Papilio 
cresphontes. 


LEPIDOPTERA  99 

species  common  on  the  hills  of  the  INIicklle  West  is  the 
Dogs-head,  a  form  shghtly  larger  than  the  common  sul- 
phur but  with  the  black  markings 

"""""''SI 

so  arranged  as  to  picture  a  dog's  f-^            ^  ^       '[ 

head  in  profile  on  each  front  wing,  '         ^              ; J 

though  some  imagination  may  be  ■              -''^^IP 

necessary  to  see  the  picture.  ^F^^k^^^Wr 

A  group  of  whites  which  have  ^I^BV^^^^ 

the  tips  of  the  front  wings  suffused  ^HFT^^P 

with     orange     is    known    as    the  ^^^      ^^  -fn 

orange-tips   and    forms    the    third  •      '  ^X  ■  • 

group    of    Pierids.     They    are  less  «       T       *" 

common  than  the  whites  and  yellows.  ^^ 

60  Lycaenidae.     The  Gossamer-  WT^     y^*lm 

wings  are    the    smallest  and  most  ^        -m 

delicate  of  the  butterflies.    Included  C         '      '   ^ 

here   are   the    "blues,"    the   "cop-  *                  * 

pers"   and    the    "hair-streaks."  ^^^^^0 

The  larvse  are  small  and  slug-like.  ^^r^^P 

The   chrysalids   are  supported  like  ^^^^0 

those  of  the  two  families  already  ^^^^F 

described,  but  they  are  never  an-  ^^      ^^' 

gular  in  outUne.     The  early  stages  ^Bfl^v 

in    this    family    are    seldom    seen.  ^  ▼ 

There  are  several  species  of  the  blues  ^^^;^  ^0i| 
that    are    familiar    objects.     They 

frequent  moist  places  and  often  are  Fig.  73.— Types  of  But- 
found  about  the  culverts  in  a  country  terflies.       First    four, 
1      rr-i                     11                n    •  Pieridce;  last  four,  Ly- 
road.     i  hey  may  also  be  seen  tlving  ^      -r,  j      i 

"^         "^                               .-      o  cremacE.    Reduced  one- 

over  any  meadow.   Some  of  the  blues  half. 

have    very    delicate    tails    on    the 

hind  wings.     This  is  true  also  of  several    'hair-streaks." 

Their  larvse  feed  largely  on  plants  in  the  pea  family. 


100 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  "  hair-streaks  " 
may  Ije  bluish  or  slaty 
black  above,  but  are 
lighter  beneath  and  are 
marked  with  dehcate  lines 
of  white  or  red  on  the 
under  side.  There  are 
manj^  species,  but  few  are 
common.  They  are  usu- 
ally shghtly  larger  than 
the  blues. 

The  ' '  coppers ' '  may 
be  dull  colored,  black, 
Ijrown  or  tan,  but  gen- 
erally have  some  portion 
of  the  wings  coppery  with 
metallic  luster.  There  are 
but  two  or  three  species 
which  we  may  consider 
common.  They  are  less 
delicate  than  the  other 
groups  of  the  family,  but 
are  by  no  means  robust. 

61.  Nymphalidae.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few 
subtropical  forms  which 
occur  in    the  Far  South, 

Fig.  74.— Types  of  Butterflies 

(NymphaHd/p) .      Reduced 

about  one-half. 

o,  a  Fritillary;  h,  the  Thistle 
butterfly;  c,  the  Red  Admiral;  d, 
the  Mourning-cloak  ;  e,  the  Red- 
spotted  Purple  ;  /,  the  Viceroy;  g, 
the  Monarch;  h,  the  Regal  Fritillary, 


LEPIDOPTERA  101 

all  the  remaining  species  of  butterflies  may  be  ascribed 
to  this  group,  which  is  by  far  the  most  extensive  of  the 
butterfly  families.  It  is  divided  into  several  sub-families, 
which  are  widely  distributed. 

The  hirvse  have  varied  shapes  and  habits.  Many  are 
clothed  with  spines  or  fleshy  filaments,  others  are  of  un- 
usual and  irregular  shapes;  few  are  difficult  to  recognize, 
although  it  is  hard  to  characterize  them  as  a  group. 
The  pupae  or  chrysalids  also  vary  in  shape  but  they 
always  hang  from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  and  lack  the 
girdle.  Not  many  species  in  the  family  have  economic 
importance.  The  large  reddish-brown  Imtterfly  with  black 
markings,  abundant  everywhere  throughout  the  summer, 
IS  the  "  monarch."  It  is  the  only  common  representative 
we  have  of  one  sub-family  (Euploeince).  It  is  found 
practically  all  over  the  habitable  world,  but  survives  the 
winter  only  in  the  warmer  portions  of  tliis  country,  mi- 
grating northward  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  The 
larva  feeds  on  milkweed.  It  is  a  smooth,  greenish- 
yellow  caterpillar  with  narrow  black  markings  and  has 
a  pair  of  long,  fleshy  filaments  at  each  end  of  the 
body. 

Another  cosmopolitan  species  in  a  different  sub-family 
IS  the  Thistle-butterfly.  This  is  of  medium  size,  of  brown 
color  with  markings  of  black,  white  and  red,  lighter, 
and  marked  with  bluish,  eye-like  circles  beneath.  Its  larva 
is  a  spiny  caterpillar  which  feeds  on  thistles.  The  Red- 
admiral,  nearly  related  to  the  preceding,  is  distinguished 
by  the  red  bar  across  the  angle  of  the  fore  wing,  and  the 
mourning  cloak,  another  relative,  by  its  larger  size,  bluish- 
purple  color  and  golden  margin  of  the  wings.  The  Fritil- 
laries,  Silver-spots,  or  Argynnids,  include  many  forms  vary- 
ing in  size  from  small  to  quite  large,  but   all  resembling 


102 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


each  other  in  general  color,  brown  with  black  markings 
above  and  with  silver  spots  on  the  under  side  of  the 
hind  wings,  and  all  having  wings  of  regular  outHne. 
Our  largest  common  ones  are  Cyhele  and  Idalia,  the  latter 
having  the  hind  wings  nearly  all  black.  The  Angle-wings 
include  several  more  common  species  and  the  name  itself 
briefly  describes  them. 

The  Wood-nymphs  are  dull  brown  in  color,  frail  in  ap- 
pearance and  faintly  marked  with  round  black  spots  or 

with    circles.      The    Meadow- 
'  browns   are    similar    but    deeper 

colored  and  marked  on  the  angle 
of  the  fore  wings  with  yellow 
circles  or  spots. 

The  "purple  emperors"  are 
moderately  large  and  are  nor- 
mally purplish  black  with  white 
markings.  The  common  one  is 
Astyanax.  This  is  almost  entirely 
purple,  but  has  small  wliite 
and  reddish  markings  near  the 
angles  of  the  wings.  Another 
one  just  as  common  is  the  Vice- 
roy, so  called  because  it  departs 
from  the  color  of  its  nearest 
relatives  and  has  acquired  almost 
exactly  the  coloration  of  the  monarch.  This  is  expl^ned 
as  a  process  of  natural  selection  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  monarch  is  distasteful  to  birds  while  the  group  to 
which  the  viceroy  belongs  is  not.  By  acquiring  the  color 
of  the  monarch  the  viceroy  acquires  also  a  certain  de- 
gree of  immunity  from  bird  attack.  This  selective  process 
is  termed  mimicry. 


Fig.  75.-^Larva  of  Viceroy- 
Butterfly  Preparing  to 
Form  Chrysalis. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


103 


62.  Hesperiina.  The  skippers  have  been  sufficiently 
described  ah-each\  While  our  species  are  rather  numerous 
they  are  difficult,  for  the  most  part,  to  separate.  The 
larvae  have  been  mentioned  but  the  chrysahds  or,  rather, 
pupae,  differ  from  those  of  other  butterffies  in  that  they 


Fig.  76. — Viceroy  Butterfly  Emerging  from  Chrysalis.     Slightly  en- 
larged. 


are  enclosed  in  poorly  constructed,  flimsj^  silken  cocoons. 
Most  skippers  are  of  brownish  or  brownish-black  color. 
A  few  are  nearly  white  or  silvery.  Many  have  extensive 
markings  of  a  yellow  tan  color.  Our  largest  skipper  is 
the  Silver-spot.     This  insect  expands  more  than  two  inches, 


104 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


is  of  dark  brown  color  and  has  a  conspicuous  silvery  spot 
on  the  under  side  of  the  hind  wing  where  it  furnishes  a 


Fig.    77. — Types    of    Lepidoptera.     Skippers    (Hesperiina).     Reduced 
about  one-third. 


means  of  ready  recognition  for  the  insect  at  rest.  The 
beginning  student  will  know  the  rest  of  the  skippers 
as  a  group  rather  than  individually. 


LEPIDOPTERA  105 

Table  for  the  Separation  of  Some  of  the  More  Im- 
portant Groups  of 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

(On  account  of  tlie  wing-venation  characters  involved  in  the 
determination  of  some  famiUes,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to 
make  this  table  complete.) 

A.  Antenna;  with  a  knob  or  club  at  the  tip.     Butterflies  and 
Skippers. 

B.  Club  with  a  recurved  hook.     Skippers.     Hesperiina. 
BB.  Antennal  club  without  hook.     ]\Iostly  Butterflies.     Pa- 
pilionino. 

C.  Size    large,    hind    wings    with    tail-like    projections. 
Swallow-tails.    Papilionidce. 
CC.  Size  variable.     Hind  wings  without  the  tails,  except 
in  smaller  forms. 

D.  Colors   white   or  j'ellow  with   or  without  black 
markings.     Pierids.    Pierldce. 
DD.  Colors  not  white  or  yellow. 

E.  Size  small;    colors  usually  blue  or  bluish;    or 
coppery  with  metallic  reflections.     JNIany  forms 
with  very  delicate  tails  on  hind  wings.     Wings 
very  tliin  and  delicate.     Gossamer-wings.     Lrj- 
coenidce. 
EE.  Size    and    color    variable    but    never    as    de- 
scribed   above.    Usually    medium    to    large 
forms.     Front    legs    abortive,    not    fitted    for 
walking.     NymphaUdce. 
AA.  Antennae  without  knob  at  tip.     Moths, 

B.  INIoths  with  a  frenulum,  Bristle  or  bristles  at  base  of  hind 
wing,  overlapping  base  of  front  wing. 
C.  Wings  more  or  less  transparent. 

D.  Size  small;  body  dark  in  color,  short  and  stout. 
Wings  transparent,  short  and  rounded.  Front 
wmgs  noticeably  larger.  Larvae  forming  bag-like 
cocoons.  Bag-warm  moths.  Psychidoe. 
DD.  Bodies  slender.  Wings  long  and  narrow,  of  more 
nearly  equal  length.     Hind  wings   or  both  fore 


106  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  hind  wings,  clear.     Clear-wing  moths.     Se- 
siidce. 
CC.  Wings  entirely  clothed  with  scales. 

D.  Size  uniformly  small  to  very  small.     Wings  usu- 
ally narrowed;   hind  wings  nearly  as  large  as  the 
fore  wings.     Micro-Lepidoptera. 
E.  Wings  fringed  with  delicate  hairs.     Size  usu- 
ally very  small.     Tineina. 
EE.  Wings  not  fringed.     Size  usually  larger.     Tor- 
tricina  and  Pyralidina. 
DD.  Size  usually  larger  than  the  Micros. 

E.  Size  larger  than  medium;  body  stout.  Front 
wings  long  and  rather  narrow;  hind  wings 
small. 

F.  Outer  margin   of  front  wings  long.     Car- 
penter moths.     Cossidoe. 
FF.  Outer  margin  of  front  wings  short.    Hawk- 
moths.     Sphingidce. 
EE.  Moths  with  size  variable  but  usually  medium. 
Wings  usually  of  normal  proportions. 

Several  common  and  important  families 
belong  here.  These  can  be  distinguished 
further  only  by  wing- venation. 

Notodontidw. 
Arctiidoe. 
Noduidce. 
Liparidce. 
Agaristidce,  etc. 
BB.  Moths  without  a  frenulum  on  the  hind  wings. 

C.  Size  medium  to  very  large.     Wings  usually  rather 
broad.     Giant  silk- worms,  etc.     Saturniina. 
CC.  Size  smaller.    Bodies  stout  and  hairy.    Tent-cater- 
pillar, etc.    Lasiocampidoe. 


CHAPTER  X 
COLEOPTERA 

Children  and  adults  alike  are  attracted  by  the  beau- 
tiful colors  of  the  Ijutterflies  and  moths;  farmers  notice 
and  take  an  interest  in  any  insect  forms  that  threaten 
their  crops;  philosophers  have  for  ages  past  studied  the 
social  insects;  we  are  all  forced  to  give  a  certain  amount 
of  attention  to  flies  and  mosquitoes  and  to  other  forms 
that  disturb  our  comfort,  and  medical  science  is  taking  an 
interest  in  the  same  forms,  of  late  years,  for  rather  differ- 
ent reasons;  but  entomologists  have,  almost  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  science,  shown  a  decided  preference  for  the 
beetles.  This  is  because  of  the  number  of  species,  the 
order  including  more  forms  than  any  other  one  order,  their 
ease  of  collection,  their  universal  distribution,  and  because 
of  their  hard  body  covering  which  renders  them  easy  to 
mount  and  permanent  in  collections.  The  order  has 
been  better  classified  than  any  other  of  the  large  orders 
and  is  easier  to  study. 

63.  General  Characteristics.  Beetles  have  four  wings, 
the  front  pair  hardened  and  forming  a  shield-like  covering 
for  the  membranous  hind  wings.  They  have  biting 
mouth-parts  and  develop  from  grubs,  indirectly.  Their 
entire  body  covering  is,  like  their  wing-covers,  or  "elytra," 
hardened  rather  more  than  is  the  case  in  other  insects. 

There  are  two  sub-orders;  the  first,  called  Coleopfera 
Genuina,  Genuina,  or  merely  Coleoptera,  includes  all  the 
species    which   do  not    have    snouts;     the    second,    Rhyn- 

107 


108  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

chophora,  includes  the  snout  beetles.  Larvae  of  Cole- 
optera  are  typically  six-footed,  with  sometimes  a  sort  of 
pro-leg  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  Some  of  the  borers 
have  lost  their  feet  through  disuse.  The  larvse  of  snout 
beetles  are  entirely  footless.  They  are  stout  bodied,  usu- 
ally slightly  curved  beneath  and  humpbacked.  They  are 
distinguished  from  some  Hymenopterous  larvse  mainly  by 
their  more  distinct  heads  and  stouter  jaws.  Larvse  of 
Genuina  have  many  forms,  some  fleshy  and  cylindrical, 
others  hardened  like  the  adults  and  of  dark  colors  and 
still  others  intermediate  between  these  two  types. 

64.  Food  Habits.  Adults  and  larvse  of  some  beetles  are 
plant  eaters,  and  are,  many  of  them,  among  our  most 
important  insect  enemies.  Many  beetles  are  scavengers, 
feeding  on  decaying  animal  and  plant  substances.  One 
is  parasitic  on  beavers,  but  animal  parasites  are  rare 
among  the  beetles.  Many  beetles  bore  in  solid  wood, 
both  dead  and  alive,  and  many  burrow  in  the  ground 
and  live  on  the  roots  of  plants. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  number  of  species 
there  are  many  families,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of 
these  may  be  recognized  from  a  few  simple  characters. 
Space  will  not  i^ermit  the  mention  of  all,  even  of  the 
common  forms,  but  those  families  having  the  greatest 
number  of  important  species  will  be  briefly  described. 

65.  Cincindelidae.  The  Tiger-beetles  are  usually  of  me- 
dium size  and  somewhat  flattened  in  form,  with  the 
elytra  broader  than  the  pro-thorax  and  head.  AU  species 
have  fairly  long  legs  and  bright  colors.  The  common 
species  exhibit  almost  no  variation  in  form  and  little  in 
size,  the  easily  noted  differences  being  in  color.  They 
are  encountered  in  warm,  sunny  situations,  along  paths, 
dusty  roads  and  railroad  tracks,   where  they  fly  up  and 


COLEOPTERA 


109 


alight  again  some  ten  or  fifteen  yards 
ahead  of,  but  always  facing  the  disturber. 
The  larvae  are  fleshy,  white  and  cyl- 
indrical. They  Kve  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  and  from  the  mouths  of  these 
burrows  capture  other  insects.  They 
are  held  in  the  holes  by  a  forward  pro- 
jecting hook  on  the  abdomen  near  the 
posterior  end.  Tiger-beetle  holes  may 
be  found  in  great  numbers  in  banks 
or  even  in  level  ground.  The  adults 
are  also  predaceous  and  capture  other 
insects.  Tiger  beetles  have  five-jointed 
tarsi  on  all  legs  and  thread-like  antennae. 
66.  Carabidse.  Ground-beetles  have 
also  five-jointed  tarsi  and  thread-Uke 
antennse.  They  are,  in  a  very  general 
way,  flattened  and  have  long  legs,  Uke 
the  tiger-beetles.  No  one  acquainted 
with  the  tiger-beetle  form  will  mistake 
them  for  ground-beetles  and  other  fam- 
ihes  are  easy  to  distinguish  from  these 
two.  Ground-beetles  are  generally  black, 
but  some  are  bright  colored,  metalhc 
green  and  some  shades  of  red  and  yel- 
low being  present  in  many  species. 
They  range  from  small  to  very  large. 
As  the  name  implies,  they  are  found  on 
the  ground,  under  logs,  stones  and 
trash  piles.     They  are  attracted  to  lights 


Fig.    78. — Types    of    Beetles.      Ground-beetles 
{Carabidce).     Reduced  one-third. 


110 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


in  great  numbers. 
Some  of  the  ground- 
beetles  are  distinctly 
valuable  as  destroyers 
of  injurious  caterpil- 
lars, notably,  those  of 
the  gypsy-moth.  In 
numbers  of  species  the 
ground-beetles  are  near 
the  head  of  the  list, 
there  being  about  a 
thousand  from  the 
United  States. 

67.  Aquatic  Beetles. 
There  are  three  com- 
mon families  of  beetles 
that  are  aquatic  in 
habit.  They  may  be 
recognized  by  their 
regular  oval  outlines, 
their  legs  fitted  for 
swimming,  and  the 
uniformly  dark  colors, 
as  well  as  by  the  habi- 
tat. The  Whirligig- 
beetles    (Gyrinidce),  are 

Fig.  79.— Types  of  Beetles. 
Slightly  reduced. 

Upper  row ,  Tiger-beetlea 
(Cicindelidoe)  ;  next  two  rows, 
Aquatic  forms  (Hydrophilidce, 
Gyrinidm,  and  Dytiscidce) ;  fourth 
row,  Carrion  beetles,  (Silphidce) ; 
fifth  row,  StaphylinidcE;  sixth 
row,  Lady-bug  beetles  and  larva 
iCoccinellidee);  lower  row,  left, 
Plinidoe;  center,  Erotylidce;  right, 
Larder  beetle  (Dermestidm). 


COLEOPTERA  111 

the  small  beetles  that  are  seen  swhnming  in  numbers  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  the  common  name  coming  from  the 
habit  of  swimming  rapidly  in  circles.  The  scientific  name 
for  the  family  is  also  suggestive  of  this  habit.  They  do 
not  exceed  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length  and  some 
common  forms  are  not  more  than  half  that  long.  They 
are  called  "money-bugs"  and  ''sweet-bugs"  by  children. 

Larger,  usually,  than  the  whirligig-beetles  are  the 
Water-scavengers  or  Hydrophilidce.  They  are  pointed  oval 
in  shape,  both  ends  of  the  body  being  narrowed  in  about 
the  same  degree.  On  the  under  side  of  the  thorax  is  a 
long  spine-like  process  that  serves  as  a  keel.  They  live 
mostly  under  the  surface  of  the  water  and  fly  to  the 
lights  at  night.  One  of  the  largest  species  may,  in  some 
localities  and  at  certain  times,  be  collected  by  the  hun- 
dreds under  a  single  electric  light  near  the  water.  The 
common  form  is  more  than  an  inch  long  and  shining  black 
in  color. 

Predaceous  diving-beetles  {Dytiscidoe)  rival  the  Hydro- 
philids  in  size  but  are  flatter  and  have  the  heads  more 
squarely  cut  off.  They  also  lack  the  keel.  The  larger 
species  are  of  a  dull  olive-green  color,  marked  with 
yellow  and  smaller  ones  are  black  and  yellow,  sometimes 
being  mostly  yellow.  They  also  may  be  attracted  to 
lights.  Their  larvae  are  called  Water-tigers.  They  are 
long  and  slender,  pointed  at  the  rear  end,  and  have  power- 
ful jaws.  They  are,  without  exception,  the  fiercest  ani- 
mals that  live  in  the  water.  The  larva  of  the  largest 
common  diver  is  three  inches  in  length. 

68.  Scavenger  Beetles.  Several  families  of  beetles, 
not  typically  scavengers,  include  species  that  feed  on  re- 
fuse and  carrion.  In  two  famihes,  however,  almost  all 
forms  feed   on   decaying   organic   matter.     These   are   the 


112  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Carrion-heetles  (Silphidce),  and  the  Short-winged  Scavengers 
{Staphylinidce) .  Carrion-beetles  are  stout  bodied  or  broad 
and  flattened  and  have  clubbed  antennae.  Their  elytra 
and  body  walls  are  not  so  hard  as  in  most  beetles.  They 
feed,  as  larvse  and  as  adults,  on  decaying  flesh.  The 
stout-bodied  forms  have  wing  covers  shortened  but  not 
to  the  same  degree  as  in  the  next  family.  The  stout- 
bodied  carrion  beetles  are  called  burying-beetles.  They 
take  the  bodies  of  small  animals  such  as  mice  and  roll  or 
drag  them  to  suitable  places,  where  they  bury  them  and 
in  them  deposit  their  eggs,  thus  providing  food  for  their 
young.  The  more  flattened  species  work  their  way  under 
the  bodies  of  heavier  animals  where  they  feed  and  lay  their 
eggs,  both  adults  and  larvse  frequently  being  found  in  the 
same  animal. 

The  Staphylinids,  sometimes  called  rove-beetles,  have 
very  slender  bodies  and  extremely  short  wing  covers. 
These  characters  alone  will  distinguish  them.  They  resem- 
ble earwigs  but  do  not  have  the  forceps-like  appendage  of 
the  earwigs.  In  habit  they  vary.  The  majority  feed  on 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  but  many  others  eat  carrion 
and  are  found  with  the  carrion-beetles. 

69.  Coccinellidae.  The  Lady-bugs  get  their  scientific 
name  from  the  food  habit  of  a  large  number  of  the  spe- 
cies. These  prey  upon  scale  insects  or  Coccids  and  the 
name  for  this  family  signifies  Coccid-killers.  Many  of 
them  prey  also  upon  aphids  and  other  small  insects. 
They  have  almost  hemispherical,  usually  brightly  colored 
bodies,  the  colors  predominating  being  orange,  yellow  and 
red  with  black  dots.  Some  species  are  pure  black,  others 
have  only  a  few  orange  or  red  spots  on  a  black  ground 
color.  All  are  small  and  many  are  among  our  best-known 
beetles.     They,  like  the  measuring  worms,  are  among  the 


COLEOPTERA  113 

few  insects  of  early  memory  with  which  we  were  on 
friendly  terms.  Many  harmless  superstitions  and  rhymes 
describing  them,  some  dating  back  hundreds  of  years 
and  originating  in  widely  different  localities,  are  connected 
with  the  lady-bugs.* 

Lady-bug  larvae  are  soft-bodied,  dull-colored  with 
brighter  spots,  rather  stout  and  with  pointed  abdomens. 
They  are  found  in  colonies  of  aphids  and  scales,  often  with 
the  adults.  Eggs  and  pupae  may  be  found  in  the  same 
situations.  Some  few  species  of  lady-bugs  feed  on  foliage. 
One  attacks  beans,  another  squash  vines.  They  are  not 
important  as  pests  of  these  plants  and  ordinary  control 
measures  easily  keep  them  in  check. 

Cucujidce  and  Dermestidce  are  of  interest  mainly  as 
destroyers  of  stored  products  of  various  kinds.  The 
former  are  slender,  very  much  flattened  species,  and  the 
common  pests  belonging  to  the  family  are  of  very  small 
size.  The  Saw-toothed  Grain-beetle  is  the  most  abundant 
and  destructive  species.  It  attacks  stored  grain  and  grain 
products,  and  also  such  foods  as  dried  raisins  and  cur- 
rants. The  Dermestids  are  small,  stout-bodied  insects 
of  dark  colors  or  checkered  with  red,  white  and  l:)lack. 
The  Buffalo-moth,  attacking  carpets  and  other  products  of 
wool,  feathers  and  fur,  is  the  larva  of  one  of  these  beetles 
{Anthrenus  scrophidarice) ,  and  another  member  of  the  same 
genus    attacks    insects    in    collections  and  other  museum 

*"Maikatt 
Flug  weg 
Stuff  weg 
Bring  me  morgen  goet  wedder  med." 
Folk  rhyme  from  the   Netherlands.     Thorpe,    "Northern   Myth- 
ology." 

"May-cat,  fly  away,  hasten  away, 
Bring  me  to-morrow  good  weather  with  you." 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  80.— Types  of  Beetles. 

1,  Fireflies  (Lampyridw);  2,  Me- 
tallic wood-borers  (Buprestidce);  3, 
Click-beetles  {Elateridx) ;  4,  Larva  of 
click  beetle  or  wireworm. 


specimens.  A  larger  species, 
black,  with  shoulders  of  a 
dull  yellow,  is  the  Larder-beetle 
and  destroys  or  spoils  food- 
stuffs, mostly  animal  products. 
They  will  also,  Uke  other 
members  of  the  family,  act 
at  times  as  scavengers,  eating 
dead  and  decaying  animals. 

70.  The  CUck-beetles  {Ela- 
teridce),  are  well  known  and 
are  remembered  with  the 
lady-bugs,  as  friends  of  early 
days  when  they  bore  the  name 
of  "Snapping"  or  "Flopover" 
bugs.  They  are  extremely 
hard-shelled,  even  for  bee- 
tles, and  have  the  joint 
between  the  prothorax  and 
the  rest  of  the  body  flexible 
and  fitted  internally  with  a 
sort  of  spring,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  enabled  to 
spring,  when  resting  upon 
their  backs,  some  distance  in 
the  air  and,  sometimes  after 
repeated  trials,  to  come  down 
right  side  up  and  ready  to 
travel.  They  are  of  dark 
colors,  black  and  olive-brown 
predominating.  The  largest 
common  species  is  the  Eyed 
Elater.  black  with  gray  mark- 


COLEOPTERA 


115 


ing  and  with  two  large,  velvety,  eye-like  spots  on  the 
pro-thorax.  Some  shin'ng  black  species  rival  this  in  size 
and  are  frequently  seen. 

Larvse  of  click-beetles  are  slender,  cylindrical,  hard- 
bodied  and  waxy  yellow  in  color. 
They  are  called  wire-worms  and 
live  in  the  soil  and  in  decaying 
wood.  Some  species  injure  the 
roots  of  plants  and  destroy  sprout- 
ing seeds. 

71.  The  Metallic  Wood-Borers 
{Buprestidcr),  also  have  a  very  hard 
body  covering.  They  are  generally 
heavier-bodied  than  the  click- 
beetles,  although  some  forms  are 
very  slender,  and  have  the  pro- 
thorax  slightly  narrower  than  the 
base  of  the  wing-covers.  The  adults 
are  sometimes  found  on  flowers 
and  on  the  sunny  side  of  tree- 
trunks.  Larvae  of  Buprestids  are 
wood-borers  and  are  called,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  the  tho- 
racic segments  are  very  broad  while 
the  rest  of  the  body  is  slender 
and  cylindrical,  Flat-headed  borers. 
This  designation  separates  them 
from  other  beetle  larvae  which  bore 
in  wood.  Some  important  orchard 
and  forest-tree  insects  belong 
here.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Flat-headed  Borer  and  the  Red-necked  Cane- 
borer.     (See  page  294,  Part  II.) 


Fig.  81. -The  "EyedElater" 
{Alaus  oculatus) .  (After 
W.  E.  Rumsey.)  Reduced 
one-half. 


Fig.  82.— Flat-headed 
Wood-borers,  Larvae 
of  Bupreslidce. 


116 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  83.— Types  of  Beetles 
(ScaraboBidoe). 


72.  The  Fireflies,  Lightning- 
bugs  or  Lantern-bugs  {Lam- 
pyridcB),  differ  from  the  other 
families  in  the  group  in  that 
they  are  soft  bodied  and  have 
soft  elytra.  The  under  side  of 
the  posterior  abdominal  segments 
of  some  species  is  luminescent 
and  gives  off  flashes  of  light 
when  the  insect  flies  or  even 
when  it  is  at  rest.  As  they  fly 
at  night  they  are  quite  conspic- 
uous and  attract  attention. 
They  form  the  basis  for  many 
superstitions.  In  the  tropics  are 
found  many  luminous  species  of 
this  family  as  well  as  some 
Homopterous  insects  which  have 
similar  hght-giving  properties. 
There  are  many  Lampyrids 
which  are  day  fliers  and  not 
luminous.  Among  these  are  the 
soldier-beetles,  slender,  yellow 
beetles,  marked  with  black, 
about  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
long,  which  are  extremely  abun- 
dant on  goldenrod  and  other  late 
summer  flowers. 

73.  Lamellicorn  Beetles. 
Two  families  called  lamellicorn 
beetles  have  antennae  with 
clubs  formed  of  thin,  plate-Uke 
structures  or  lamellae;   hence  the 


COLEOPTERA 


117 


name.  The  two  families  agree  in  being  composed  of  large- 
sized  beetles  with  stout  bodies.  There  are,  however,  many 
quite  small  species. 

Scarabceidce.  Most  of  the  lamellicorn  beetles  belong 
to  this  family.  The  best-known  species  are  large,  but 
many  more  are  small.  Their  stout,  oval  bodies  and  their 
antennse,  on  which  the  plates  forming  the  club  fit  close 
together  hke  one  piece,  distinguish  them  from  other  beetles. 


Fig.  84. — Rose-chafers  {Scarabwidcp) ,  on  Apple-Leaves.     Reduced 
one-half, 


The  number  of  species  is  large  and  their  activities  varied. 
The  larvae  are  fleshy,  white,  strongly  curved  grubs  and 
live,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  soil. 

The  group  of  Scarabseids  embraces  species  which  are 
scavengers.  Some  of  these  feed  on  annual  matter,  but 
the  more  common  ones  live  in  or  about  decaying  vege- 
table matter  and  the  excrement  of  domestic  animals. 

The  most  interesting  of  these  scavengers  are  the  Tumr 


118 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


hle-bugs.  These  form  balls 
of  manure  in  which  they 
lay  their  eggs,  and  which 
they  roll  off  to  some  safe 
place  and  conceal  in  the 
earth.  Related  species 
make  holes  in  the  ground 
under  a  pile  of  manure 
and  fill  these  holes  with 
manure  in  which  they  lay 
their  eggs.  The  tumble- 
bugs  are  typical  Scara- 
bseids  and  one  of  them  was 
the  sacred  beetle  or  Scarab 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
Quite  a  complex  system  of 
mythology  was  built  up 
about  the  habits  of  this 
insect.  The  student  will 
find  it  interesting  to  con- 
sult some  standard  ency- 
clopcsdia  and  there  get 
additional  information  re  - 
garding  these  myths. 

There  are  no  beetles  of 
large  size  more  abundant 
than  those  known  as  June- 
hugs  or  May-beetles.  They 
represent  a  second  group  of 

Fig.    85.— Types     of     Beetles. 
Three-fourths  natural  size. 

o,  Rhinoceros-beetle  (Scarabcndce): 
remaining  figures,  stag-beetles  (Luca- 
nidce) . 


COLEOPTERA  119 

Scarabceidce.  These  common  beetles  are  brown  in  color, 
oval  in  shape  and  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  inch 
in  length.  They  appear  in  early  spring  and  fly  to  the 
lights  in  great  nmnbers.  They  do  considerable  harm  to 
vegetation  by  eating  fohage,  m  the  adult  stage,  but  it 
is  as  larvse  that  they  are  the  greatest  nuisances.  The 
common  wliite-grub  or  "rnully-grub"  is  the  larval  form 
of  these  insects.     (See  page  236,  Part  II.) 

Rose-chafers  or  Rose-bugs  are  among  the  smaller  Scar- 
abseids.  They  are  rather  slender  for  this  family  and  have 
comparatively  long  legs  armed  with  many  stout  spines. 
Their  larvae  resemble  white  grubs,  but  are  smaller  and 
flatter,  although  similarly  curved.  These  larvae  Hve  in  the 
soil,  where  they  do  some  damage,  but  the  species  com- 
mits the  most  of  its  depredations  in  the  adult  stage.  The 
beetles  appear  about  the  time  the  roses  bloom  and  injure 
them  by  eating  both  leaves  and  flowers.  They  are  also 
pests  of  the  grape,  of  apple  and  of  a  large  number  of  our 
cultivated  plants,  mostly  trees  and  shrubs,  and  will  even 
eat  the  leaves  of  sassafras,  which  is  generally  avoided  by 
insects.  Rose-chafers  are  hard  to  kill,  as  arsenicals  act  on 
them  slowly,  and  they  may  do  most  of  their  damage  be- 
fore the  poisons  cause  their  death.  No  remedy,  other 
than  spraying,  has  proven  satisfactory. 

Related  to  the  rose-chafers  are  several  species  of  Floiver- 
beetles.  One  of  these  is  green  and  brown  in  color  and  is 
called,  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  the  June-bug.  It 
may  more  properly  be  termed  the  Southern  June-bug. 
The  flower  beetles  are  more  flattened  than  the  other  spe- 
cies we  have  considered.  They  are  pointed  toward  the 
head  and  bluntly  rounded  at  the  posterior  end.  They 
frequent  flowers  and  some  of  them  fly  with  a  loud  buzzing 
noise    and    are    so    called    Bwnhle-beetles.     Another    com- 


120 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


mon  leaf- eater  is  the  Spotted  Pelidnota.  This  is  of  a  hght 
brown  color  with  a  few  round  black  dots  on  the  wing- 
covers.  It  has  much  the  shape  of  the  June-bugs  but  is 
larger.  It  sometimes  injures  grapes  by  eating  the  foliage. 
Some  very  large  beetles  belong  with  the  Scarabceidce. 
Our  largest  species  is  the  Rhinoceros  Beetle.  It  is  two 
inches   long,    very    stout   bodied,    olive-green    and    black. 

Two  large  horns  are 
borne  by  the  males,  one 
on  the  head  and  one  on 
the  thorax,  and  these 
give  the  insect  the  ap- 
.  ^j^  '"V^^B         pearance  of  a  miniature 

SF-jTt  ^I^      rhinoceros.     Related 

^^jB  '^"'"  species  in  the  West  In- 

dies   are   six   inches   in 
length. 

Lucanidce.  The  Stag- 
heetles  compose  the 
second  family  of  the 
lamellicorns.  They  are  a  little  more  elongate  and  flat- 
tened than  most  of  the  Scarabseids  and  their  an- 
tennal  clubs  are  less  compact.  Their  larvae  are  similar, 
though  usually  larger,  and  are  found  in  rotting  wood. 
Males  of  some  species  have  very  strongly  developed  man- 
dibles and  are  often  called  Pinching-bugs.  There  are  few 
species  and  these  are  not  important. 

74.  Cerambycidae.  These  insects  are  called,  as  adults, 
the  Long-horned  Wood-borers  and  as  larvae,  the  Round-headed 
Borers.  The  adults  are  slender,  elongate  beetles  with  an- 
tennae unusually  long,  sometimes  several  times  as  long  as 
the  bodies.  They  are  among  the  most  graceful  and  at- 
tractive   of   the   beetles.     They   have   tarsi    that    are   ap- 


V 


Fig.    86.— Typical    "  Lamellicom  " 
Larva  {Lucanidue), 


COLEOPTERA 


121 


parently  four-jointed,  the  third  joint 
being  bilobed  and  the  fourth  joint 
ahnost  concealed  at  the  base  of  the 
lobes,  and  the  fifth  joint,  which  is 
longer,  appearing  to  be  the  fourth. 
This  character  will  not  often  be 
needed  to  identify  members  of  this 
family.  The  larva  bore  in  the  solid 
wood  of  many  trees  and  are  often 
destructive.  The  Round-headed  Apple- 
tree  Borer  and  the  Locust-borer  l^elong 
here.  (See  page  292,  Part  II,  and  Fig. 
211,  page  293.) 

75.  Chrysomelidae.  The  Leaf-beetles, 
as  these  insects  are  called,  include 
many  species,  among  which  are  a 
great  number  of  the  most  destructive 
insects.  They  are  small,  usually 
rounded  beetles.  Some  of  them  may 
be  mistaken  for  lady-bugs,  but  the  tarsi 
will  distinguish  them,  as  the  tarsi  in 
this  family  are  the  same  as  in  the 
one  preceding.  The  larvae  vary  greatly 
in  form.  Some  feed  on  the  foliage 
of  plants  with  the  adults,  others  live 
in  the  soil  and  attack  roots.  The 
Colorado  Potato-beetle  is  the  best  known 
and  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Chry- 
somelids.  (See  page  276,  Part  II.) 
Many  leaf-beetles  have  the  hind  legs 
strongly  developed  and  are  able  to 
leap  actively.  These  are  the  Flea- 
beetles.     Different    flea-beetles    attack 


Fig.  87.— Types  of 
Beetles.  Long-horned 
Wood-borers  (Ceram- 
bycida). 


122 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


^         M 

n 

1 

^ 

1 

Fig.  88. — Round-headed  Wood- 
borers,  Larvae  of  Cerambycidw. 


Fig.    89.— Types    of    Beetles. 
Leaf -beetles  {Chrysomelidce) . 


many  crops.  The  small  beetles 
attacking  cucumbers  (see 
page  272,  Part  II),  and 
the  one  that  works  on  aspa- 
ragus are  Chrysomelids.  So 
is  the  Ehn  Leaf-beetle.  One 
species  works  in  the  spring  on 
apple  foliage  and  later  in  the 
season  on  locust.  Its  larvae 
mine  in  the  leaves  of  the  locust 
and  the  insect  is  called  the 
Locust  Leaf-beetle.  It  is  brown 
with  a  black  band  down  the 
middle  of  the  back  and  is 
flatter  than  most  of  the  leaf 
beetles,  and  somewhat  wedge- 
shaped. 

Bruchidce  include  a  few 
small  species  with  tarsi  like 
the  Cerambycidce  and  with 
stout  bodies  and  shortened 
w  i  n  g  -  c  o  V  e  r  s  .  Their  larvae 
feed  within  the  seeds  of  peas, 
beans  and  other  legumes. 
They  will  be  recognized  usu- 
ally by  their  habitat.  They 
are  known  as  Bean-  and  Pea- 
weevils.  * 

76.  Meloidae.  The  Blister- 
beetles  are  soft  bodied,  elon- 
gate, cylindrical  beetles  with 
constricted  prothorax  and  slug- 
*  See  page  224,  Part  11. 


COLEOPTERA 


123 


gish  movenont.  Some  forms  will  blister  the  skin  if 
crushed  on  it  and  this  fact  makes  them  of  some  value  for 
medicinal  purposes.  These  species  supply  the  Cantharides 
or  "Spanish-fly"  of  conunerce.  They  feed  on  plants.  The 
old-fasliioned  potato  beetles  are  bhster-beetles.  Some  kinds 
feed  on  clover  and  alfalfa,  at  times  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  be  pests.  Larvae  of  bhster-beetles  have  a  curious  and 
very    complex   development.     First   they    are    active   and 


Fig.  90. — Asparagus  Beei  le, 
type  of  C hrysonielidie. 
Enlarged  greatly. 


Fig.  91. — A  Blister-beetle  or 
Oil-beetle,  Meloe,  sp.  {Me- 
loitUr).   Twice  natural  size. 


move  about  to  search  for  the  insect  eggs  upon  which  they' 
feed.  Later  they  attack  different  kinds  of  insects  and 
become  parasitic.  They  then  become  fleshy  and  sluggish. 
Some  of  them  are  of  importance  because  they  destroy 
grasshopper  egg  masses. 

77.  Tenebrionidae.  Tliis  family  includes  a  considerable 
number  of  species,  few  of  wliich  are  either  important  or 
conspicuous.  The  common  name  Darkling-beetles  has 
been  given  to  the  family.  The  larger  members  resemble 
superficially  the  ground  beetles,  but  have  antennae  larger 
at  the  tip  than  at  the  base  and  have  only  four  joints  on 


124 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


iw%ii 


the  hind  tarsi.  Most  of 
these  are  found  about 
decaying  wood  and  under 
bark.  Many  species  feed 
on  fungous  growths.  A 
few  Tenebrionids  infest 
stored  grains  and  grain 
products.  The  largest  of 
these  is  the  Meal-worm. 
It  is  nearly  an  inch  long, 
slender  and  parallel  sided 
and  somewhat  flattened. 
The  meal  worms  them- 
selves resemble  wire- 
worms  but  are  shorter  and 
stouter  and  flattened  on 
the  under  surface.  They 
may  be  found  in  old  feed 
bins  where  masses  of  part- 
ly spoiled  grain  have  been 
left  undisturbed.  Some 
of  the  other  grain  beetles 
of  this  family  are  much 
smaller,  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  and  are 
found  in  company  with 
the  saw-toothed  grain 
beetle. 

Fig.  92.— Types  of  Beetles. 
Natural  size. 

1,  2,  3,  and  4,  Tenebrionidoe  5, 
6,  and  7,  IJlister-beetles  (Meloidw); 
8,  MelandryidcB  ;  9,  r.ruchidce  ;  10, 
PyrochroidcB  ;  11,  yipoiidylidce ;  12, 
Histeridce ;  13,  Irogositidoe ;  14, 
Cucujid(e. 


COLEOPTERA 


125 


Several  minor  families  of  beetles,  especially  the  smaller 
forms,  are  related  to  the  Tenebrionids  and  may  be  found 
with  them  about  fungi. 

78.  Rhynchophora.  This  suborder  of  beetles  contains, 
as  stated  before,  the  Snout-beetles. 
These  insects  have  the  heads  pro- 
longed into  more  or  less  slender  beaks 
on  the  tip  of  which  are  located  the 
mouth-parts.  The  antennae  are  fre- 
quently elbowed  and  are  attached 
to  the  snouts.  The  have  other  more 
obscure  points  of  difference  from  the 
other  beetles.  Several  famihes  of 
snout-beetles  are  recognized.  Of  these 
we  will  mention  only  the  more  im- 
portant. 

Curculionidce.  Most  of  the  insects 
known  as  Weevils  belong  here,  although 
the  term  weevil  may  be  applied  to 
certain  others  without  impropriety. 
A  better  common  name  is  Curculios. 
The  curculios  have  snouts  which  are 
mostly  long  and  slender  but  may  be 
short.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  them 
SD  that  the  beginner  may  recognize 
them,  although  the  family  is  of  the 
greatest  economic  importance. 

The  Plum-curculio  (see  page  299, 
Part  II),  one  of  the  worst  insects  that 
attacks  fruits,  the  Nut-weevils,  several 
species  of  which,  belonging  to  the  genus 
Balaninus,^re  found  in  chestnuts,  hick- 
ory nuts,  acorns  and  other  native  nuts, 


Fig.  93.— Types  of 
Snout-beetles  (/?/!yn- 
chophora) .  Slightly 
enlarged. 


1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5.  Cur- 
culionidce; 6,  Calandridce; 
7,  BrenthidcF;  8,  fthynchi' 
tidce;  9,  Scolytoidea. 


126 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


the  Apple-weevil,  the  Apple-cur  culio,  the  Strawberry -Weevil, 
the  Mexican  Cotton  Boll-weevil,  see  page  259,  Part  II,  an  in- 
sect that  invaded  the  Southern  States  by  way  of  Mexico 
and  has  injured  the  cotton-growing  industry  of  that  region 
more  than  any  other  one  factor,  and  the  Alfalfa-weevil, 
also  an'  importation,  at  present  confined  to  some  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  but  a  menace  to  the  alfalfa  crops 
of  the  country  in  future  years,  are    all  Curculionidce  and 


Fig.  94. — The  Apple  Curculio,  Showing  Different  Stages  {Curculioni- 
dve).     Enlarged.     (After  Riley.) 


will    serve   to  suggest  the   extent   of   the  ravages  of  this 
family. 

Calandridce.  The  Bill-bugs,  as  the  Calandrids  are  com- 
monly named,  include  fewer  species  than  the  preceding 
family,  but  some  are  quite  important.  The  most  famihar 
examples  are  the  common  Granary-weevils,  small,  slender, 
brown  beetles  with  rather  prominent  snouts  curving  for- 
ward and  downward  from  the  heads.  These  are  every- 
where found  in  stored  grains.  There  are  two  species,  one 
being  called  the  Rice-weevil,  but  they  are  similar  in  ap- 
pearance and  habits. 


COLEOPTERA 


127 


In  the  Middle  West,  espe- 
cially in  muck  lands,  larger 
bill-bugs  injure  corn.  They 
are  nearly  a  half  inch  long 
and  rather  stout  bodied,  and 
are  commonly  called  Corn- 
Bill-bugs. 

Scohjtoidea.  This  super- 
family,  formerly  classed  as  a 
family,  includes  a  great 
number  of  species  of  small 
insects  that  attack  and  destroy 
shade,  forest  and  fruit  trees 
by  boring  between  the  bark 
and  the  wood.  They  are 
called  the  engraver-beetles 
because  of  the  patterns  on 
the  wood  made  by  their 
galleries.  These  can  easily  be 
seen  by  removing  the  bark 
from  an  infested  branch. 
Another  common  name  is 
the  bark-beetles.  The  Fruit- 
tree  Bark-beetle  (page  291,  Part 
II),  is  the  best-known  ex- 
ample. On  account  of  the 
numerous  small  round  holes 
which  the  emerging  beetles 
make  in  the  bark  of  an  in- 
fested tree  this  insect  is 
better  known  as  the  Shot-hole 
Borer.  The  group  is,  without 
doubt,    the    most    important 


*   I  t    I  # 


Fig.  95. —  Engraver  Beetles 
(Scolytoidea) .  Work  of  these 
forms  is  shown  in  Fig.  96. 
Enlarged. 


Fig.    96.— Work    of    Engraver- 
beetle  {Scohjtoidea). 


128  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

of  all  insects  from  the  standpoint  of  the  timber  industry. 
Some  members  of  the  bark-beetle  family  have  other  habits, 
as  one  which  lives  on  the  roots  of  clover. 


Table  for  the  Identification  of  the  more  Common 
Families  of  Beetles 

COLEOPTERA 

A.  Heads  prolonged  into  distinct  snouts  bearing  the  mouth- 
parts  on  the  tips.     Snout  Beetles.     Rhynchophora. 
AA.  Heads  not  prolonged  into  snouts. 

B.  Aquatic  beetles,  legs  fitted  for  swimming. 

C.  Palpi  longer  than  the  antennse;    a  keel-like  structure 
frequently  found  on  under  side.     Hydrophilidoe. 
CC.  Palpi  not  longer  than  the  antennse. 

D.  Ej^es  divided  into  two  parts.     Gyrinidce. 
DD.  Ej^es  not  divided.     Dytiscidoe. 
BB.  Not  aquatic  in  habit. 

C.  Found  mostly  on  the  ground,  concealed  under  rub- 
bish or  running  in  the  open. 
D.  Legs  slender,  antennse  thread-like. 

E.  Front    vertical,     mandibles    pointing    down- 
ward.    Cicindelidce. 
EE.  Front  horizontal,  mandibles  pointing  forward. 
Carabidcc. 
DD.  Legs   usually  shorter  and   stouter,   antenna?  not 
thread-like. 

E.  Scavenger  beetles,  found  about  decaying  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  matter. 

F.  Bodies     slender,    wing-covers    very    short. 
Staphylinidce. 
FF.  Bodies     stouter,    wing-covers     medium    to 
long. 

G.  Antennae  gradually  enlarged  into  a 
club  or  with  sharply  rounded,  compact 
knob.    Silphidce. 


COLEOPTERA  129 

GG.  Antennre  with  club  made  of  flattened 
plates,    lamellate. 

H.  Plates  of  antennal   club  separated. 
Lucanidcc. 
HH.  Plates   of   antennal   club   appearing 
as  one  piece.     Scarabceidce. 
EE.  Not  scavengers.     Feeding  usually  on  vegeta- 
tion. 

F.  Antennsp    lamellate.     Lucanidoe   and   Scar- 
abceidce,  as  above. 
FF.  Antennae  not  lamellate. 

G.  Antennae  saw-like.     Bodies  usually  slen- 
der oval. 

H.  Body  rather  soft.     Lampyridw. 
HH.  Body  extremely  hard. 

I.  Pro-thorax  with  angles  projecting 
backward    and    with    process   on 
prosternum   projecting   backward 
into     groove     on    mesosternum. 
.  Elateridce. 
II.  Pro-thorax     generally     narrowed 
slightly;     surface    of    body    less 
even    than    in    previous    family. 
BuprestidcE. 
GG.  Antennae  not  saw-like. 

H.  Tarsi  with  three  joints  easily  seen. 
Small,  oval,  nearly  hemispherical, 
black  or  yellow,  red  and  orange  mix- 
tures. Coccinellidoe. 
HH.  Tarsi  with  more  than  three  visible 
joints. 

I.  Tarsi  with  four  visible  joints. 
J.  Antennae  usually  longer  than 
body.     Medium    to    large    in 
size,    slender.     Wood    borers. 
Cerambycidce. 
JJ.  Antennae  of  normal  length. 
K.  Short,     oval,     seed-infest- 
ing species,  usually  found 


130  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


in  beans  and  peas.    (Wing- 
covers  short.)     BruchUce. 
KK.  Usually     small,     oval     or 
more   slender.     On   foliage 
of  plants.     ChrysomelidoB. 
II.  Hind     tarsi     with     four     joints; 
front  tarsi  with  five. 
J.  Bodies  soft,   cylindrical;    pro- 
thorax  narrowed.     Meloidce. 
JJ.  More    flattened,    harder     bod- 
ies;    dark    colors;     found    on 
ground   and   in   fungi.     Tene- 
brionidcB. 


CHAPTER  XI 
DIPTERA 

79.  General  Characteristics.  The  flies  (Dzptero),  consti- 
tute one  of  the  six  major  orders.  They  have  two  wings,  and 
sucking  mouth-parts  and  they  develop  indirectly.  The  larvae 
of  most  flies  are  called  maggots.  Flies  have,  in  the  place 
of  hind  wings,  a  pair  of  more  or  less  conspicuous  knobbed 
threads  or  balancers  called  halteres.  Different  common 
names  are  applied  to  many  flies  and  groups  of  flies.  Mos- 
quitoes, gnats,  midges,  etc.,  are  among  these  names. 
Many  groups  of  flies  have  mouth-parts  capable  of  piercing 
or  "biting"  the  skin  of  animals.  Mosquitoes  and  horse- 
flies are  notable  examples.  Many  other  forms  can  eat 
only  exposed  liquid  food,  the  sucking  tube  ending  in  soft 
flaps.  Few  adult  flies  attack  vegetation  but  many  feed 
on  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

80.  Importance  to  Man.  Flies  are  important  to  man 
in  a  rather  different  way  than  most  other  insect  pests. 
While  many  species  attack  growing  crops  and  various  food 
products,  usually  in  the  larval  stage,  their  greatest  im- 
portance comes  from  the  fact  that  they  attack  man  and 
domestic  animals  directly  in  the  adult  stage.  In  this  way 
they  cause  not  only  great  annoyance  and  economic  loss, 
by  rendering  certain  regions  p  actically  uninhabitable  for 
civilized  people,  but  even  greater  loss  by  carrying  the 
organisms,  which  cause  certain  diseases.  Some  are  parasitic 
on  domestic  animals  and  inflict  much  injury  in  this  way. 
The  discovery  of  the  disease-carrying  powers  of  many  species 

131 


132 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


^5^=>, 


that  were  previously  considered  as  merely  annoying  pests 
has    opened    up    a    new    field    in    the    study    of    insects 

known    as   Medical  En- 
tomology. 

81.  Fly  Larvae.  Fly 
larvae  are  footless  and 
sightless  but  fairly  act- 
ive in  spite  of  these 
handicaps.  They  feed 
to  some  extent  on  grow- 
ing plants,  either  on  or 
in  the  roots,  foliage,  or 
fruit,  but  by  far  the 
larger  number  of  them 
are  scavengers,  feeding 
on  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  of 
every  description.  Some 
fly  larvae  grow  with  ex- 
traordinary rapidity. 
This  is  especially  true  of 
the  forms  that  feed  on 
dead  animals,  probably 
because  the  decaying  flesh  remains  in  a  condition  fit  for 
food  for  a  limited  time  only. 

82.  Classification.  The  classification  of  the  Diptera  is 
difficult  for  the  beginner.  This  is  largely  because  a  use 
of  most  of  the  descriptions  and  tables  for  the  order,  in- 
volves wing-venation  characters  which  are  usually  rather 
compUcated  and  will  not  be  considered  here.  It  is  some- 
what difficult  to  characterize  even  the  more  common 
families  so  that  the  beginner  can  easily  distinguish 
them.    For  this  reason   no   attempt  will  be   made  to  de- 


FiG.  97. — House-fly  (above)  and  Stable 
Fly,  Showing  Lapping  Mouth-parts 
and  Piercing  Beak.     Enlarged. 


DIPTERA 


133 


scribe   any   but   the   most    common  and  easily  recognized 
forms. 

83.  Culicidae.  The  Mosquitoes,  which  form  this  family, 
may  be  recognized  by 
their  slender  bodies, 
long  legs  and  by  the 
fringes  of  scales  which 
occur  on  the  margins 
of  the  wings  and  on 
the  wing  veins.  They 
are  rather  below  the 
medium  size  although 
there  are  many  flies 
which  are  much  smaller. 
The  habits  of  the  com- 
mon forms  are  well 
known.  One  species  is 
directly  and  solely  re- 
sponsible for  the  trans- 
mission of  yellow  fever  from  one  person  to  another,  and 
the  members  of  the  genus  Anopheles  are  responsible  for 
the  spread  of  malarial  fever.  Other  species  have  to  do 
with  the  transmission  of  sev- 
eral tropical  diseases  of  man 
and  animals. 

Mosquito  larvae  may  be 
found  in  the  water,  usuallj^ 
but  not  always,  in  stagnant 
water.  They  are  commonly 
called  wrigglers  and  may  breed  in  any  stagnant  water, 
even  in  what  may  be  caught  by  an  empty  tin  can  in  a 
back  yard.  (See  page  183,  Part  II,  for  a  further  discus- 
sion of  mosquitoes.) 


Fig.  98. — The  Yellow-fever  Mosquito 
iCulicidce).  (After  Howard,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.)     Greatly  magnified. 


Fig.  99. — Mosquito   Larva  or 
"  Wriggle-tail  "   {Culicidce). 


134 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


84.  Gnats  and  Midges.     Several  families  of  mosquito- 
like   flies    are    variously  spoken  of  as   Gnats  and   Midges. 

They  are  usually 
smaller  than  the 
mosquitoes  and  lack 
the  fringes  on  the 
wings.  Some  of 
these  are  fungus 
eaters  and  are 
known  as  Fungus- 
gnats  (Mycetophi- 
lidce) ;  others  are 
largely  plant  eaters 
in  the  larval  stage 
and  form  swellings 
or  galls  in  the  stems 
of  their  food  plants. 
These  are  called 
gall-gnats. 

Cecidomyiidce. 
To  this  family  be- 
longs the  Hessian- 
fly  (see  page  250, 
Part  II).  Other 
families  of  gnats 
and  midges  include 
forms  that  attack 
man  and  domestic 
animals  and  are 
serious  pest  at 
certain  seasons  in  some  localities,  particularly  the  far  North. 

85.  Tipulidae.    The  Crane-flies  are  not  of  great  importance 
but  deserve  mention  on  account  of  their  abundance,  their 


Fig.  100.— Types  of  Flies  (Diptera). 

1,  A  mosquito  (Cxdicidm);    2,  Crane-flies  (Tipu- 
lidoe);    3,  Horse-flies  {Tabanidce). 


DIPTERA 


135 


large  size,  and  their  peculiar  form.  The  larger  species 
are  unmistakable.  They  have  bodies  resembling  those 
of  mosquitoes  but  with  abdomen  less  regular  in  shape 
and  they  have  extremely  long  legs.  They  fly  over  mead- 
ows and  through  underbrush  in  partially  wooded  tracts 
and  are  most  nu- 
merous in  the  warm 
days  of  late  fall. 
It  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  secure 
specimens  with  the 
full  complement  of 
legs,  since  they  are 
so  loosely  attached 
that  the  least  touch 
serves  to  detach 
them.  Crane-fly 
larvae  live  in  the 
soil  and  are  said 
to  be  injurious  to 
the  roots  of  plants 
in  the  Western 
States. 

86.  Asilidae. 
This  is  another 
family  which  in- 
cludes many  large 
species.  The  common  name  for  them  is  Rohher-flics.  They 
have  slender,  tapering,  humpl)acked  bodies  and  rather 
short  and  stout  legs.  They  are  predaceous  and  capture 
and  kill  other  insects  of  many  kinds,  frequently  over- 
powering and  eating  grasshoppers  twice  their  size.  The 
beginner   may    not    distinguish    robber-flies    from    certain 


Fig.  101. — Types  of  Flies.  Above,  a  Midas- 
fly  (Midaidce) .  Lower  figures,  robber-flies 
(AsilidcB).     Slightly  reduced. 


136  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

other  large   flies,    the   Midas-flies    (Midaidce),    which   are, 
however,  less  numerous  in  species  and  individuals. 

87.  The  Horse-flies.  Tabanidce.  The  mosquito  form 
and  its  modifications  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  one 
group  of  fly  families.  The  other  type  is  represented  by 
the  horse-flies.  They  have  broad,  short  and  rather  flat 
bodies  and  short  legs.  They  are  medium  to  large  in  size 
and  have  exceedingly  powerful  flight.  They  may  often- 
times be  noticed  circling  easily  around  a  horse  in  full 
gallop.  While  few  definite  characters  other  than  those  of 
wing  venation  can  be  cited  to  identify  the  horse  flies,  it 
may  still  be  noted  that  they  give  the  impression  of  having 
firm  bodies  of  regular  outline,  the  abdomens  taper  usually  to  a 
blunt  but  definite  point,  and  the  hind  angles  of  the  large  com- 
pound eyes  are  usually  slightly  produced  backward  forming 
an  angle  and  giving  the  hind  margin  of  the  head  a  strongly 
concave  shape.     The  larvae  live  in  wet  soil  or  in  the  water. 

Many  species  are  annoying  to  horses  *  and  cattle  and 
even  to  man.  Some  are  called  Ear-flies,  some  Gad-flies, 
this  name  being  applied  also  to  some  of  the  bot-flies, 
mentioned  later,  and  one  small  species  with  banded  wings 
is  called  the  Shad-fly,  or  the  Deer-fly,  and  frequently  an- 
noys man  in  low,  wooded  regions  near  the  water. 

88.  The  Black-flies,  so-called  (SimuUidoE),  are  inter- 
mediate in  form  between  the  mosqui'o-like  type  and  the 
house-fly  type,  having  fairly  slender  bodies  and  short 
legs.  The  family  includes  several  species  which  attack 
man  and  may  be  very  annoying,  and  also  some  species 
that  attack  domestic  animals  and  poultry.  The  Buffalo- 
gnat  and  the  Turkey-gnat,  both  well  known  in  the  South 
in  the  regions  which  they  infest,  are  examples  of  forms 
having  the  latter  habit.  They  inflict  severe  losses  in  the 
*  See  page  200,  Part  II. 


DIPTERA 


137 


infested  regions, 
to  beginners  rather 
by  habits  than  by 
structures. 

89.  Bee-flies 
{BomhyUida:),  and 
the  Soldier-flies 
(Stratiomyiidoe), 
frequent  flowers. 
The  latter  are  not 
always  abundant, 
but  are  often  notice- 
able on  account  of 
their  bright  color 
markings.  Yellow 
and  green  bands 
and  stripes  are 
common  in  this 
family.  The  sol- 
dier-flies are  of 
small  to  medium 
size.  Their  larvae 
are  usually  aquatic. 
The  bee-flies  pre- 
sent many  varia- 
tions. Some  species 
are  quite  hairy, 
many  have  very 
long  beaks  and  feed 
on  nectar.  Banded 
wings  are  also  char- 
acteristic of  many 
bee-flies.  The  habit 


Members  of  this  family  will  be  known 


Fig.  102.— Types  of  Flies  (Diplera).     Natural 
size. 

a,  Syrphidae;  h,  Tachinid(r;  c,  Puparium  of  Ta- 
china-fly:  d.  Bee-flies  (Bombyliidce);  e,  Musctdoe;  f, 
Snipe-flies  (Leptida);  g,  House-fly,  and  h,  Stable-fly 
(^M  uscidce) . 


138  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

of  hovering  or  remaining  poised  in  the  air  is  well  devel- 
oped here  but  should  not  lead  one  to  mistake  bee-flies,  for 
some  of  the  Syrphidce  which  have  a  similar  habit.  Bee- 
flies,  and  certain  syrphus-flies  as  well,  mimic  some  of 
the  bees  and  wasps. 

90.  Snipe-flies  (Leptidce),  are  not  of  great  importance, 
but  may  be  mentioned  because  of  a  few  of  the  more 
abundant  forms.  These  have  bodies  shaped  hke  those  of 
mosquitoes  but  much  larger  and  heavier.  The  legs  are 
relatively  short  and  the  wings,  while  narrow,  are  power- 
ful. One  species  which  is  usually  common  has  the  top  of 
the  thorax  clothed  with  thick  orange  yellow  or  golden  hairs. 

91.  The  Syrphus-flies  {Syrphidce),  as  these  are  com- 
monly called,  are  very  nimierous  and  have  many  different 
forms.  They  present  a  greater  number  of  bee-Hke  forms 
than  do  the  bee-flies  themselves.  Some  resemble  bumblebees 
very  closely;  others  look  more  hke  the  honey-bee,  one  species 
being  known  as  the  Drone-fly,  on  account  of  the  simi- 
larity. The  typical  members  of  the  family  are  of  small  to 
medium,  or  even  large  size,  have  flattened  and  rather  broad 
bodies,  and  colors  usually,  at  least  in  part,  yellow  or  green 
or  both.  They  hover  or  poise  in  the  air,  sometimes  over 
flowers  or  other  food,  more  often  apparently  over  noth- 
ing in  particular.  Some  species  bite  animals  and  man  and 
are  called  Sweat-flies.  They  are  often  confused  with  sweat- 
bees,  wliich  are,  properly,  true  bees  and  sting,  while  the 
sweat-flies  pierce  the  skin  with  their  mouth-parts.  The 
wound  from  the  fly  bleeds  shghtly,  while  the  bee  sting 
does  not.  Larvae  of  syrphus-flies  are,  many  of  them, 
predaceous,  feeding  on  plant  lice.  These  larvse  have  bodies 
tapering  toward  the  heads,  shghtly  flattened  and  scalloped 
along  the  margins.  They  may  be  green  with  yellow  mark- 
ings.    Other  syrphus-fly  larvae  are  entirely  different.     The 


DIPTERA 


139 


/ 


larva  of  the  drone-fly  is  aquatic  and  is  known  as  the 
"  Rat-tailed  IVIaggot,"  on  account  of  the  long,  tail-like 
breathing  tube.  They  niaj'  be  found  in  masses  in  stag- 
nant water.  The  family,  as  a  whole,  may  he  considered 
as  beneficial. 

92.  Bot-flies,  Warbles,  Gad-flies  or  Heel-flies  as  the 
(Esirida  are  variously  called, 
are  parasites  of  domestic 
and  wild  mammals.  The 
adults  are  usually  hairy  and 
somew^hat  bee-like.  The  best- 
known  adult  is  probably 
that  of  the  Horse-hot,  which 
lays  its  eggs  on  horses  in 
late  summer  and  always 
causes  the  animals  attacked 
to  become  excited.  Other 
species  attack  sheep  and  cat- 
tle. (See  page  191,  Part  II.) 
This  family  includes  most 
of  the  insects  which  are  in- 
ternal parasites  of  the  higher 
animals. 

HippohoscidcB.  These  insects  are  external  parasites, 
in  the  adult  stage,  upon  mammals  and  birds.  They  are 
either  winged  or  wingless,  usually  the  latter,  and  have 
flattened,  louse-like,  bodies.  The  larval  stages  are  passed 
within  the  bodies  of  the  adult  females  and  emerge  from 
them  only  when  fully  grown  and  ready  to  transform  to 
the  pupa.  The  so-called  Sheep-tick  (page  202,  Part  II),  is 
our  most  common  member  of  this  group. 

93.  Muscina.  The  largest  and  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant group  of  flies  includes  those  that  wore  formerly 


^^1^ 

"^f 


Fig.  103. — Above,  Larva  of  the 
Ox-warble ;  below,  Horse 
Bot-fly.     Slightly  enlarged. 


140 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


1. 


w 


all  classed  as  one  family,  the  Muscidce,  of  which  the 
House-fly  is  typical.  This  family  is  now  considered  as  a 
super-family  and  has  been  divided  into  several  families. 
Some  of  these  it  will  be  well  to  consider  separately. 

The  Tachina-flies  (Tachinidce),  are,  for  most  part,  para- 
sitic on  other  insects.  Their  larvse  attack  grasshoppers, 
many  kinds  of  caterpillars  and  other 
insect  forms.  The  adults  are  like  the 
house-fly  in  general  shape,  but  may 
be  stouter  bodied,  are  often  con- 
siderably larger,  and  are  usually 
clothed  with  short,  stout  bristles, 
especially  prominent  on  the  abdomen. 
As  a  whole  this  group  is  beneficial. 

Flesh-flies  (Sarcophagidce),  may  be, 
as  larvse,  either  parasites  or  scaven- 
gers. Many  have  habits  similar  to 
the  Tachinids  while  others  feed  on 
decaying  animal  matter.  Flesh-fly 
eggs  are  often  hatched  within  the 
bodies  of  the  females, 
larvse  being  born  alive, 
may  be  small,  but  are 
medium  size  or  larger. 

Anthomyiids  {Anthomyiidce),  are 
flies  smaller  in  size  than  the  average 
for  the  super-family.  They  resemble 
the  common  house-fly  in  conformation  but  may  be  more  slen- 
der and  bristly.  The  maggots  feed  on  decaying  or  living 
vegetable  matter.  The  ones  attacking  the  roots  of  cab- 
bage, onions,  radishes  and  related  crops  are  the  most  im- 
portant forms.     Dull  colors  prevail  in  this  group. 

The  Fruit-flies    (Trypetidce)   include   numerous    species 


Fig.  104. — Parasitic 
Diptera.     Enlarged. 

1,  Sheep  bot-fly  (CEstri- 
dce) ;  2,  Louse-fly  from  hawk 
(Hippoboscidw) ;  3,  "Sheep- 
tick  "  (Hippuboscidw)  ;  4, 
Pupa  of  "  Sheep-tick." 


the    young 

Flesh-flies 

usually    of 


DIPTERA  141 

of  small  flies.  They  may  be  -brightly  colored  and  many 
of  them  have  wings  banded  and  spotted  in  a  very  at- 
tractive manner.  Their  bodies  are  slender  and  their 
logs  incHned  to  be  long.  The  larvae  feed  on  decaying 
or  fresh  fruit  and  some  species  are  serious  pests.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  one  called  the  Mediterranean  Fruit- 
fly,  which  attacks  certain  sub-tropical  fruits.  Consider- 
able sums  of  money  are  being  expended  to  keep  this  fly 
from  becoming  established  in  the  state  of  California. 

Muscida.  The  typical  Muscids  are  included  in  this 
family  which  is  represented  by  the  common  House-fly, 
(see  page  175,  Part  II),  the  Stable-fly  the  Blow-fly,  Horn- 
fly,  and  many  other  common  species.  Larvse  of  this 
group  are  the  familiar  maggots  which  may  be  found  in 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter  of  any  description. 
They  are  white,  taper  to  a  point  at  the  head  end,  and, 
though  footless,  are  quite  active.  The  pupae  are  smooth, 
oval,  or  cylindrical  with  rounded  ends.  The  family  is 
important  on  account  of  the  numbers  of  species  and  of 
individuals  and  the  annoyance  they  cause  man  and  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  for  its  part  in  the  spread  of  many  diseases. 
Some  forms,  notably  the  Screw-worm  Fly  larvae,  get  into 
flesh  wounds  of  animals  and  cause  serious  inflammation 
and  even  death.  This  insect  is  most  abundant  in  the 
Gulf  States. 

[Diptcra.  On  account  of  the  great  difficulty  of  identifying,  with 
any  degree  of  certainty,  even  the  more  important  groups  of  flies 
without  the  use  of  minute  characters  of  the  antennae  and  difficult 
structures  of  the  wings,  no  attempt  will  here  be  made  to  formulate 
a  table  for  the  use  of  the  beginning  student.  He  will  have  to  iden- 
tify the  more  common  forms  by  means  of  the  descriptions  and  the 
figures  accompanying  them.] 


CHAPTER   XII 


HYMENOPTERA 


The  bees,  the  wasps,  the  ants  and  a  host  of  other 
smaller  insects  comprise  this  order.  It  ranks  second  to 
none    in    its    biologic    and    economic    importance.     In    its 

economic  status  it  is  rather 
beneficial  than  otherwise, 
which  will  be  brought  out 
later  in  the  discussion  of 
the  different  groups. 

94.  General  Character- 
istics. Hymenoptera  have 
four  wings,  membranous 
throughout,  which  usually 
have  few  veins.  With  few 
exceptions  the  front  wings 
are  the  larger.  A  row  of 
hooks  on  the  hind  wing, 
which  fasten  in  a  fold  in 
the  front  wing,  hold  the  two 
together  so  firmly  that  the 
beginner  may  easily  mis- 
take them  for  one  wing. 
The  mouth-parts  of  Hymen- 
optera are  formed  typically  for  biting.  In  many  in- 
stances there  is  also  a  modification  of  some  parts  of  the 
mouth  to  form  a  sucking  tube.  Many  of  the  best-known 
members  of  the  group  have  this  adaptation.     Development 

142 


Fig.  105.— Swann  (»i  Ik'os  Clus- 
tered in  Grape-vine. 


HYMENOPTERA 


143 


is  indirect.  The  larvie  of  all  but  two  groups  of  Hymen- 
optera  are  footless,  usually  fleshy,  white,  grub-Hke,  crea- 
tures. Some  of  the  exceptions  are  caterpiUar-like,  but 
may  be  known  by  the  fact  that  they  have  more  than 
five  pairs  of  pro-legs.  Where  the  larvae  are  helpless  they 
are   either   cared   for  by  the   adults   until  they   are   fully 


Fig.  106. — A  Modem  Bee-hive  Supported  on  Hollow  Tiles. 


grown   or   the    eggs    are    placed   in  or  on   the  food,  and 
left  there. 

95.  Sub-Orders.  There  are  two  sub-orders.  In  one,  the 
females  have  the  ovipositor  modified  into  a  stinging  organ. 
In  the  other,  the  ovipositor  is  fitted  for  boring  plant  tis- 
sues to  deposit  the  eggs  and  is  not  used  as  a  weapon. 
The  one  sub-order  is  called  the  Stinging-Hymenoptera  or 
Aculeata;  the  other,  the  Boring-Hijmenoptera  or  Tere- 
hrantia. 

96.  The  Stinging  Hjntnenoptera.  All  the  commonly  ob- 
served members  of  the  order  are  classified  in  this  sub- 
order.    While  they  are  all  properly  called   stinging    Hy- 


144 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


menoptera  it  must  be  understood  that  there  are  man} 
forms  in  the  group  which  do  not  sting  or  possess  stinging 
organs.  All  the  members  of  this  division,  except  two  little 
known  and  rather  rare  families,  are  placed  in  four  super- 
families,  each  one  including  several  families.  They  will  be 
considered  here  under  the  super-family  headings. 

GT.Apoidea.    This 

r-^  — ^-.  "  '  -  ^<.'  group  includes  all  the 
tj  -^  ,.j£.j;jei^^  _  "t.  Bees.  There  are  sev- 
eral families,  but  they 
have  many  charac- 
ters in  common.  Bees 
may  almost  always  be 
recognized  as  such, 
even  by  the  beginner, 
by  the  conformation 
of  the  body.  In  ad- 
dition to  this,  most 
of  them  have  the  basal 
segment  of  the  hind 
tarsus  flattened  and  armed  with  hairs  and  bristles, 
and  adapted  for  carrying  pollen.  Bees  are  generally 
stouter  bodied  than  the  wasps  and  are  frequently  hairy. 
The  bodies  are  commonly  more  flattened  than  is  the 
case  with  the  wasps.  The  habits  of  bees  vary  consider- 
ably. Many  are  social,  but  a  much  larger  number  of 
species  is  solitary  in  habit.  Most  bees  feed  on  pollen 
and  nectar  secured  from  flowers,  and  on  such  other  sweet 
substances  as  they  may  find. 

The  most  common  of  the  social  bees  is  the  hive-bee 
or  Honey-bee  {Apis  melUfera),  which  occurs  throughout  the 
civilized  world  in  a  domesticated  condition.  Its  habits 
and   social   organization   have   been   more   widely   studied 


Fig.  107. — Cocoons  of  the  Bee-moth  in 
the  Top  of  a  Hive  {Lepidoplera,  Pyra- 
lidina). 


HYMENOPTERA 


145 


than  those  of  any  other  insect  and  vokimes  have  been 
written  concerning  it.  There  are  three  different  classes 
of  individuals   in    a   bee    colony;    the   true   males,    called 

drones,    the    fully    devel-  

oped  females  or  queens, 
and  the  workers,  which  are 
females  not  fully  devel- 
oped sexually.  In  a  col- 
ony there  is  one  queen,  a 
varying  number  of  drones, 
and  in  a  strong  swarm, 
many  thousand  workers. 
The  drones  serve  no  pur- 
pose aside  from  the  fer- 
tilization of  the  queens 
and  they  are  produced 
in  numbers  far  in  excess 
of  the  needs  for  this  func- 
tion. The  queens  lay  the 
eggs  for  the  production  of 
workers  and  other  queens 
while  unfertilized  queens 
and  workers  produce 
eggs  which  develop  into 
drones. 

The  workers  do  all 
the  work  of  the  colony, 
build  comb,  gather  nec- 
tar,   pollen    and    certain 

other  substances  used  in  the  hive,  and  care  for  the  larvae 
or  brood.  They  keep  the  hive  clean  and  also  regulate 
the  temperature  somewhat  by  ''fanning"  with  their  wings. 
From  the  nectar  they  manufacture  honey  and  wax. 


Fig.    1U8. — Types   of   Hymciioplera 

Bees   (Apoidea).      Enlarged. 

1,  Carpenter-bee  ;  2,  3,  4,  Bumble< 
bees;  5,  7,  Honey-bee,  queens;  6,  Drone- 
bee  ;  8,  9,  10,  workers;  11-15,  Solitary- 
bees. 


146 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Queens  are  produced  from  eggs  which  are  just  the  same 
as  those  which  normally  produce  workers.  The  larvae 
destined  to  form  queens  are  fed  with  a  specially  prepared  food 
called  "royal  jelly"  and  the  cells  in  which  they  develop 
are  altered  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  larger  individual. 
When  a  new  queen  emerges  in  a  hive  she  may  be  killed 
by  the  old  queen  or  may  herself  kill  the  old  queen.     Fre- 


Fig.  109. — A  Cut  Bee-tree,  Showing  Coinlw  in  the  Cavity. 


quently,  however,  neither  is  killed  but  the  old  queen 
leaves  the  hive  and  takes  with  her  a  large  number  of  the 
workers.  These  find  a  suitable  situation  and  form  a  new 
colony.  The  division  of  a  colony  in  this  manner  is  called 
swarming.  Queen  raising,  swarming  and  other  operations 
of  the  colony  are  done  artificially  by  the  modern  bee 
raiser  or  apiculturist. 

Bees,  especially  honey-bees,  are  important  not  only  for 


HYMENOPTERA  147 

the  commercial  products,  honey  and  beeswax,  which  they 
furnish,  but,  to  a  much  greater  extent,  because  of  the  part 
they  play  in  the  fertilization  of  flowers.  Many  of  the 
valuable  cultivated  plants  do  not  set  fruit  or  produce  seed 
properly  where  there  are  not  enough  bees  to  provide  for 
their  fertilization.  Many  flowers  have  remarkable  adap- 
tations of  structure  to  insure  pollination  by  the  bees. 
Honey-bees  are  found  wild  in  all  the  countries  where  the 
domestic  bees  have  been  carried,  as  escaping  swarms  hve 
in  hollow  trees  or  caves.  In  South  America  there  are 
found  honey-producing  bees  which  do  not  sting.  This 
apparent  advantage  is  minimized  by  the  fact  that  they 
defend  themselves  by  biting. 

Bumble-bees  or  "Humble-bees"  are  larger  and  more 
hairy  than  the  honey-bees  and  differ  somewhat  in  their 
social  organization.  Only  the  queens  live  through  the 
winter.  They  start  the  new  colonies  in  the  spring  and 
do  all  the  work  of  the  colony  until  such  time  as  the 
workers  develop.  Their  nests  are  usually  built  on  the 
ground  or  under  stones  and  are  concealed  with  grass  and 
weeds.  Their  honey  is  stored  in  small  oval  sacks  and  is 
not  used  commercially.  There  are  workers  and  males 
and,  at  times,  several  queens  in  one  nest.  The  queens  are 
the  largest  individuals  in  the  nests  and  are  much  more 
active  than  the  honey-bee  queens.  The  over-wintering 
females  are  fertilized  in  the  fall. 

Bumble-bees  are  able  to  cross-fertilize  certain  plants 
whose  flowers  are  too  deep  for  the  shorter  tongues  of  the 
honey-bees  to  reach.  A  common  plant  of  this  type  is  the 
red  clover. 

Some  bees  bore  in  solid  wood  and  make  their  nests  in 
the  galleries  which  they  construct.  These  are  solitary. 
One    borer    (Fig.    108,  1),  or  Carpenter-bee,  resembles  the 


148  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

bumble-bees  in  size  and  general  appearance.  Other  bees 
dig  burrows  in  the  ground,  mainly  in  the  sides  of  steep 
banks.  Such  bees  are  solitary,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  but  frequently  a  bank  will  contain  the  burrows  of 
hundreds  of  these  bees.  Some  of  the  miners  form  colo- 
nies, all  members  of  which  use  one  entrance  to  the  nests, 
the  nests  being  separate  for  each  individual.  Professor 
Comstock  likens  the  abodes  of  the  two  classes  of  miners 
here  mentioned  to  villages  of  many  separate  houses  and 
to  city  apartment  houses  with  many  dwellings  in  one 
house.  There  are  bees  which  have  a  semi-parasitic  habit, 
the  females  laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  bees 
and  leaving  them  to  be  cared  for  by  the  ''hosts."  These 
are  termed  ''guest-bees"  or  inquilines. 

Wliile  we  are  accustomed  to  consider  the  economic 
status  of  insects  from  the  standpoint  of  the  damage  they 
may  do,  the  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  bees  are 
indispensable  to  the  production  of  many  of  our  most  val- 
uable crops,  should  show  us  that  insects,  as  a  whole,  are 
indispensable  and  make  us  more  tolerant  of  the  injurious 
species,  if  it  be  necessary  that  we  have  both  kinds  to  have 
the  beneficial  ones. 

98.  True  Wasps.  Wasps  {Vespoidea)  are  distinguished 
from  bees  by  the  tarsi,  which  are  not  fitted  for  carrying 
pollen,  and  by  the  more  slender  forms  of  most  of  the  spe- 
cies. They  are  separated  from  the  next  group  (digger-wasps) 
by  the  resting  position  of  the  wings.  In  the  true  wasps 
the  front  wings  at  rest  have  one  longitudinal  fan-Hke  fold; 
in  the  digger-wasps  the  front  wings  are  not  folded. 

Some  of  the  true  wasps  are  social  and  resemble  the 
bumble-bees  almost  exactly  in  their  social  organization. 
All  the  insects  commonly  called  Hornets  and  Yellow- 
jackets  are  true  wasps. 


HYMENOPTEKA 


149 


The  social  wasps  make  nests 
sembling  paper  which  is 
formed  from  wood  pulp  as  is 
paper.  These  nests  may  be  of 
many  forms  and  may  be  found 
in  different  situations.  The 
most  common  ones  are  found 
about  houses.  They  are 
roughly  circular,  consist  of  a 
single  layer  of  cells  opening 
downward  and  are  attached 
to  a  ceiling,  or  to  some  over- 
hanging structure  that  will 
afford  a  degree  of  protec- 
tion, by  a  single  stalk.  The 
wasps  that  make  these  nests 
are  brown  in  color,  more  than 
an  inch  long  and  of  rather  slen- 
der and  very  elegant  form. 
They  belong  to  the  genus 
Polistes.  Other  social  wasps 
make  nests  composed  of  sev- 
eral layers  of  cells,  all  enclosed 
by  an  outer  wall,  the  whole 
structure  being  oval  in  form 
and  gray  in  color.  Some  of 
these  nests,  made  by  the 
insects  best  known  as  yellow- 
jackets,  are  found  in  the 
woods,  attached  to  limbs  of 
trees.  Others,  made  by  hor- 
nets, may  be  found  either  on 
trees    or    on    the   ground,  or 


of  a  substance  closely  re- 


FiG.  110. — Types  of  Hymenop- 
tera.  Three  lower  figures, 
Ants  (Formicoidea) ;  others, 
True  wasps  (Vespoidea). 
Shghtly  reduced. 


150  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

even  under  stones  or  in  cavities  in  the  ground.  Hornets 
and  yellow-jackets  are  well  known  for  the  fighting  pro- 
pensities they  display  when  their  nests  are  disturbed  and 
for  the  effectiveness  of  their  stings.  They  belong  to  the 
genus  Vespa. 

Solitary  wasps  belonging    to    this    family  have  many 
forms  of  nests.     Some  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  are 


Fig.  111. — Underground  Nest  of  Hornet  (Vespa). 

made  of  mud  and  atattached  to  twigs  and  to  stems  of 
plants.  They  are  shaped  like  miniature  jugs  and  often 
are  almost  perfect  in  their  molding.  Each  contains  a 
single  larva.  Still  other  wasps  have  nesting  hal)its  like 
some  of  the  solitary  bees,  being  miners,  wood-borers  or 
carpenters,  making  nests  of  bits  of  vegetation  and  pieces 
cut  from  leaves.  Most  solitary  wasps  feed  on  nectar 
and  pollen,  but  provision  their  nests  with  insects  or  feed 
the  young  directly  with  other  insects.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  social  wasps. 


HYMENOPTERA  151 

99.  Sphecoidea.  The  Digger-wasps  include  a  considerable 
number  of  families.  They  have  similar  food  and  nesting 
habits.  All  are  solitary,  most  forms  are  miners  and  con- 
struct their  nests  in  the  ground  but  some  live  in  the  stems 
of  plants. 

Nests  of  digger-wasps  are  provisioned  with  insects  or  with 
spiders,   which  have  been  stung  by  the  wasps  until  they 


Fig.  112. — Hornets  and  their  Nest. 

are  in  a  comatose  condition.  They  live  until  the  larvae 
are  ready  to  use  them  as  food.  In  this  manner  fresh 
food  is  provided.  One  family  of  these  wasps  preys  almost 
exclusively  on  spiders;  others  prefer  different  kinds  of 
insects;  one  large  species  captures  cicadas  or  harvest-flies 
and  is  known  as  the  cicada-killer. 

To  the  digger-wasp  family  belong  the  Mud-daubers  or 
Mud-wasps  and  the  Thread-w aisled  Wasps,  also  usually 
mud-masons.  Their  nests,  in  and  near  houses,  especially  in 
chimneys,  are  well  known  to  all. 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  113. — Types  of  Hymenoptera. 
Digger-wasps  (Sphecoidea). 
Slightly  reduced. 


100.  Ants.  (Formicoidea.) 
The  ants  are  best  known  as 
wingless  creatures  because  it 
is  only  at  certain  times  in 
the  year  that  the  winged 
individuals  appear.  These 
winged  forms  are  the  true 
males  and  females.  They 
mate,  found  new  colonies 
and  either  die  or  lose  their 
wings.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  ants  are  almost  invari- 
ably small  insects,  and,  while 
numerous,  not  more  so  than 
many  other  forms  of  equal  size 
that  escape  attention  almost 
entirely,  they  are,  on  the 
contrary,  among  the  best 
known  of  insects  and  have 
received  much  more  study 
than  any  other  forms  except, 
perhaps,  the  bees.  The 
reason  for  the  existing  general 
interests  in  ants  is,  without 
doubt,  their  social  habit  and 
communal  organization.  Of 
nearly  three  thousand  de- 
scribed species,  none  is  known 
to  be  solitary. 

In  the  ant  colony  are 
found  several  kinds  of  individ- 
uals; the  males  and  females, 
the  workers  and  the  soldiers. 


HYMENOPTERA  153 

Workers  are  infertile  females  not  fully  developed.  There 
may  be  different  sizes  of  workers,  the  soldiers  themselves 
being  workers  with  greatly  developed  heads  and  jaws.  Ants 
have  a  wide  variety  of  food  habits  and  live  in  greatly  different 
situations.  Some  burrow  in  the  ground,  others  in  wood;  some 
construct  nests  on  the  stems  of  plants.  Many  ants  are 
almost  omnivorous,  but  most  species  have  a  weakness  for 
sweets  of  all  sorts.  This  fact  often  renders  them  very 
annoying  and  destructive  in  dwellings.  Some  ants  are 
farmers  or  harvesters.  They  are  often  called  agricul- 
tural ants  and  are  popularly,  but  erroneously,  supposed 
to  plant  the  crops  which  furnish  their  food.  Several  ants 
have  the  habit  of  making  slaves  of  the  workers  of  other 
species.  In  some  the  slave-making  habit  is  of  such  long 
standing  that  they  have  forgotten  how  to  care  for  their 
own  nests,  and  when  they  cannot  obtain  slaves  they  perish. 
Much  has  been  written  about  the  communal  organiza- 
tion found  in  ant  colonies  and  many  writers  ascribe  to 
ants  intelligence  of  a  human  order  and  altruism  of  an 
even  higher  degree.  Undoubtedly,  ants  do  possess  very 
highly  developed  instincts;  their  colonies  are  well  organized 
and  their  daily  functions  are  performed  in  a  most  efficient 
manner.  At  the  same  time  there  is,  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer,  ample  proof  that  the  first  gleams  of  anything  that 
may  be  called  intelligence  has  yet  to  appear  in  any  insect 
type.  The  basis  for  the  assumption  that  ants  possess 
intelligence  has  been  the  difficulty  of  explaining  certain  of 
their  actions  on  the  ground  of  instinct  alone.  There  are 
other  actions  that  are  even  more  difficult  to  reconcile  with 
the  idea  that  these  insects  have  the  slightest  intelligence, 
and  added  to  that  is  the  physiological  reason  of  the  lack 
of  a  structure  comparable  to  the  brain  of  the  thinking 
animal. 


154  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Ants  have,  aside  from  their  philosophical  interest,  a 
considerable  importance  as  economic  insects.  Some  are 
destructive  to  vegetation,  others  are  indirectly  injurious 
because  of  their  assistance  to  plant-injuring  aphids,  still 
others  are  household  pests  and  are  injurious  to  foods  and 
stored  products.  The  injurious  species  are  most  promi- 
nent in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  where  it  is 
often  almost  impossible  to  protect  stored  products  from 
their  attacks.  Ant  colonies,  in  houses,  may  be  destroyed 
by  the  use  of  a  poisoned  syrup  and  they  may  be  kept 
from  tables  and  cupboards  by  so-called  ''Ant  tape."  (See 
page  219,  Part  II.) 

101.  Terebrantia.  The  Boring  Hymenoptera  may  be 
known  by  the  possession  of  two-jointed  trochanters  on 
the  hind  legs  as  well  as  by  the  lack  of  the  sting  in  the 
females.  They  embrace  many  forms  and  their  food  habits 
are  even  more  variable  than  their  structures.  They 
are  roughly  classed  as  plant  eaters  and  as  parasitic 
insects,  but  this  classification  is  not  entirely  satis- 
factory, because  some  members  of  the  parasitic  groups 
attack  plants.  The  plant-eaters  include  the  Horn-tails  or 
Wood  wasps  (Siricidw),  the  Saw-flies  {Tenthredinoidea) , 
the  Gall-flies  (Cynipoidea),  and  in  part  the  Chalcis-flies. 
(Chalcidoidea) .  The  parasitic  forms  are  grouped  as  the 
Chalcis-flies,  the  Ichneumon-flies  (Ichneumonoidea) ,  and 
the  Proctotrypids  (Proctotrypoidea) .  Many  members  of 
these  groups  last  mentioned  are  very  difficult  for  anyone 
but  a  pecialist  to  recognize. 

102.  Horn-tails  and  Saw-flies.  The  Siricidce  or  Horn- 
tails  are  named  from  the  peculiar  short,  stout  and 
proniinent  boring  organ  borne  by  the  females.  They  are 
comparatively  large  in  size,  and  have  no  constriction 
between  the  thorax  and  al^domen.      The  latter  character 


HYMENOPTERA 


155 


separates  tliein  fi'oiii  all 
saw-flies,  and  these  do 
not  have  the  boring  or- 
gan. The  larvae  are  white 
and  grub-like  and  bore 
in  the  solid  wood  of 
tlifferent  trees,  notably 
hickory,  locust  and  the 
coffee  bean.  Not  many 
species  occur  and  these 
may  easily  be  known 
by  the  description  here 
given. 

Tenthredinoidea.  The 
Saw-flies  have,  at  the 
most,  a  very  slight  con- 
striction between  the 
thorax  and  the  abdomen. 
They  have  also  rather 
flat  backs  and  broad 
hind  wings.  The  fe- 
males have  a  short  saw- 
like organ  used  to  form 
a  cavity  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  eggs  which 
are  placed  most  within 
leaves  or  in  growing 
stems.  Saw-flies  are 
variable  in  size,  ranging 
from  one-fourth  inch 
to  over  one  inch  in 
length.  The  larvae  of 
saw-flies  are  caterpillar-like 


other    Hijmenoptera   except    the 


Fig.     114. — Types    of    Hymenop'e.a. 
Slightly  reduced. 

1,  PeJrcinus  polyturator  (Pelecintdw);  2, 
3,  and  4,  Saw-flies  (Tcnthredinida:);  5,  Horn- 
tail  or  Pigeon  Treniex  (Siriciflw);  6,  6,  and 
7,  Gall-flies  (Cynipulcr) ;  8,  Cuckoo-fly  (Chrys- 
ididw) ;  9,  Gouty-gall  on  blackberry,  formed 
by  gall-fly  (7). 


or  slug-like.    The  slug-like  forms 


156  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

usually  become  more  like  caterpillars  at  their  last  molt. 
They  have  six  to  eight  pairs  of  pro-legs.  Their  food  is 
the  foliage  of  plants.  The  slug-like  forms  have  very  short 
legs  and  are  covered  with  a  slimy  substance.  They  are 
usually  larger  through  the  thoracic  region  and  taper  to- 
ward the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  Many  saw-fly  larvse  have 
the  curious  habit  of  curling  the  tip  of  the  abdomen 
forward  and  downward,  often  looping  it  partly  around  the 
twig  or  the  edge  of  the  leaf  upon  which  they  rest. 

Important  species  of  saw-flies  are  the  Imported  Cur- 
rant-worm; the  Pear-slug  (see  page  316,  Part  II),  which 
attacks  pears  and  cherries,  and  skeletonizes  their  leaves, 
causing  them  to  turn  brown  and  fall  off;  the  Rose-slug, 
similar  to  the  pear-slug  but  smaller,  and  many  species 
attacking  shade  and  forest  trees.  Slugs  may  easily  be 
killed  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  by  dusting  them  with 
almost  any  dust. 

103.  Gall-flies.  The  gall-flies,  Cynipoidea,  form  another 
of  the  highly  specialized  and  unusually  interesting  groups 
which  are  found  so  frequently  in  this  order.  The  adults  are 
almost  all  small,  often  with  metallic  colors.  They  have 
the  abdomen  compressed  laterally  and  somewhat  tele- 
scoped. It  is  not  by  the  adults,  which  are  at  best  in- 
conspicuous, nor  even  by  the  larvse,  but  by  the  abnormal 
growths  which  the  larvae  produce  on  plants,  that  our  at- 
attention  is  attracted  to  this  group  of  insects.  Many 
dwellings  are  produced  on  plants  by  insects  of  other  orders 
and  all  are  known  as  galls.  Some  are  caused  by  Diptera, 
the  gall-gnats,  some  by  small  moths  and  many  others 
by  plant  lice,  but  the  great  majority  of  galls  are  pro- 
duced by  members  of  this  family.  They  are  found 
on  stems  and  leaves  of  oak,  on  hickory  leaves,  on  rose 
twigs,  on  blackberry  canes   and  on  other  plants.     In  form 


HYMENOPTERA  157 

they  are  extremely  diverse.  Some  are  globular,  others 
cone-shaped  and  others  irregular  in  shape.  Eggs  are  laid 
by  the  female  under  the  bark  or  in  the  leaf  and  the 
gall  growths  are  induced,  no  one  knows  just  how,  b}^  the 
presence  of  the  young  larvse  feeding  in  the  plant  tissues. 
Some  gall-flies  are  parthenogenetic ;  that  is,  reproduce 
without  males  for  one  or  more  generations,  and,  in  fact, 
there  are  species  that  are  not  known  ever  to  produce 
males.  Others  exhibit  a  peculiar  phenomenon  called 
alteration  of  generations.  First  there  will  be  produced 
a  generation  of  both  males  and  females.  The  young 
from  these  develop  into  forms  that  are  all  females  and 
resemble  in  no  way  either  of  the  parent  forms.  They 
may  also  produce  galls  in  different  plants  and  of  widely 
different  appearance.  The  appearance  of  the  galls  and 
the  insects  which  form  them  sometimes  deceives  stu- 
dents of  these  forms  and  causes  them  to  be  classified  in 
different  genera  from  their  parents.  The  next  generation 
will,  however,  be  composed  of  both  males  and  females 
identical  with  the  first  individuals,  their  grandparents. 

104.  The  Parasitic  Hymenoptera  or  Parasitica.  The 
remaining  groups  of  Hymenoptera,  while  containing  some 
non-parasitic  forms,  may  best  be  studied  as  the  so-called 
Parasitica,  they  being,  for  the  most  part,  parasitic  on  other 
insects.  They  vary  from  large  size,  one  species  with  its 
ovipositor  being  more  than  six  inches  long,  to  the  small- 
est of  insects,  some  being  almost  too  small  to  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye  and  developing  within  the  eggs  of  in- 
sects which  are,  in  the  adult  stage,  themselves  considered 
as  very  small  species. 

The  larger  Parasitica  belong  to  the  family  Ichneu- 
monidce.  These  may  be  wasp-like  in  shape  and  size; 
they    may  have  abdomens    very  much    compressed  later- 


158 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


t- 


ally   and    have    very   long,    thread-like    ovipositors.     The 
larger  forms  parasitize  caterpillars  and  other  larvae  and  pupae. 

One,  possibly  the  most 
remarkable  form  in 
the  group,  has  an  ovi- 
positor several  inches 
in  length  with  which 
it  bores  through  solid 
wood  to  deposit  its 
eggs  in  the  galleries 
of  the  horn  tail-larvse 
(page  154),  which  it 
parasitizes  and  kills. 
Members  of  the  fam- 
ily BraconidiB  may 
attack  caterpillars 
and,  when  full  grown, 

)x  form  small  silken  co- 

\  coons  on  the  outside 

\  of    the    body    of    the 

host.     Others    in    the 
<*^  same    family    pupate 

within  the  host.  One 
sub-family  confines  its 
attention  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  plant- 
lice  and  scarcely  a  spe- 
cies of  these  insects 
has  not  one  or  more  parasites  belonging  to  this  sub-family. 

In  the  super-family  Proctrypoidea,  we  find  the  smallest 
of  the  parasites  and  among  the  smallest  of  insects.  Here 
are  found  the  egg  parasites  and  some  of  numerous  parasites 
of  the  scale  insects. 


••«*5% 


^ 


Fig.  115. — Parasitic  Hymerwp'era.  Note 
parasitized  cocoon  and  mass  of  pupae. 
Reduced  about  one-half. 


HYMENOPTERA  159 

Chalcis-jlies  (super-family  Chalcidoidea),  may  parasitize 
species  in  many  different  groups,  mainly  of  the  smaller  in- 
sects. They  may  infest  scale  insects  and  many  egg  para- 
sites belong  to  this  division. 

Parasitic  Hijmenoptera  of  many  of  these  groups  may 
attack  other  parasites.  In  such  case  they  are  called 
secondary    parasites.     Secondary    parasites    may    in    turn 


i 

Fig.  116. — Sphinx  Larva  Parasitized  by  Braconids. 
Pupae  attached. 

be  parasitized  and  their  parasites  are  called  tertiary  par- 
asites. It  is  thought  that  there  are  even  quaternary  par- 
asites or  forms  that  attack  the  tertiary  parasites.* 

In  addition  to  the  parasitic  forms,  there  are  some 
plant-infesting  species  belonging  to  the  Chalcis-flies.  These 
may  be  both  beneficial   and    harmful.     The  Wheat  Joint- 

*  "Big  fleas  have  httle  fleas  to  bite  'em, 

Little  fleas  have  lesser  ones,  and  so  ad  infinitum.'" 

"So  naturahsts  observe,  a  flea 

Has  smaUer  fleas  that  on  him  prey; 
And  these  have  smaUer  still  to  bite  'em, 
And  so  proceed  ad  infinitum.'' 

Swift.    "  A  Rhapsody." 

"  Great  fleas  have  little  fleas  on  their  backs  to  bite  'em, 
And  little  fleas  have  lesser  fleas,  and  so  ad  infinitum, 
And  the  great  fleas  themselves,  in  turn,  have  greater  fleas  to  go  on; 
While  these  again  have  greater  still,  and  greater  still,  and  so  on." 
DeMorgan,   "  A  Budget  of  Paradoxes,"   p.  377. 


160  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

worm  (Isosoma  tritici),  and  the  Wheat  Straw-worm  (/. 
grande)  are  both  more  or  less  serious  pests  to  the 
wheat  crop.  Other  species  feed  on  seeds  of  plants  before 
they  ripen.  One  Chalcidid  is  beneficial  because  of  its 
habit  of  feeding  on  figs  of  certain  sorts.  The  structure  of 
the  fig  is  such  that  for  cross-fertilization  the  presence  of 
this  insect  (Blastophaga  grossorum),  is  necessary.  The 
females  of  the  insect  carry  pollen  from  fertile  blossoms  of 
the  "  caprifig "  to  the  infertile  blossoms  of  the  valuable 
Smyrna  fig.     The  insects   breed   in  the   "  caprifigs "   and 


Fig.  117. — Wing  of  Hymenopterous  Insect.     Letters  indicate  names 
of  the  cells  and  of  the  veins  on  the  anterior  margins  of  the  cells. 

c,  costa;    Sc,  sub-costa  ;    R,  radius;    M,  median  ;    Cu,  cubitus;    1"A,  first  anal; 
2"A,  second  anal;    3"A,  third  anal;    s,  stigma. 

merely  visit  the  Smyrna  figs  while  in  search  of  suitable 
places  for  egg  laying,  but,  as  they  often,  in  mixed  groves, 
come  from  the  pollen-bearing  flowers,  they  carry  pollen 
with  them  and  in  their  activities  within  the  infertile  sorts, 
dust  this  into  their  flowers.  The  process  is  called  "cap- 
rification."  The  discovery  of  the  above  facts  and  the 
importation  and  colonization  of  the  Blastophaga  in  south- 
ern Cahfornia  has  enabled  growers  there  to  produce 
Smyrna  figs  of  the  best  quality  where  they  were  formerly 
unable  to  compete  with  the  imported  product.  It  serves 
as  an  example  of  the  extremely  varied  problems  connected 
with  the  science  of  entomology. 


HYMENOPTERA  161 

Chalcis-flies  in  plants  often  produce  swellings  and  ab- 
normal growths  called  galls,  but  these  are  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  true  Cynipid  galls. 


Table  for  the  Determination  of  the    More    Impor- 
tant Groups  of 

HYMENOPTERA. 

A.  Abdomen  of  female  provided  with  an  organ  for  boring  or 
sawing.  Trochanters  of  the  hind  legs  with  two  segments. 
Sub-order  Terebrantia. 

B.  Abdomen  not  at  all  or  slightly  constricted  where  it 
joins  the  thorax. 

C.  Abdomen  of  female  furnished  with  a  prominent 
boring  organ.  Mostly  larger  species.  Horn-tails. 
Siricidce. 
CC.  Abdomen  of  females  furnished  with  less  prominent 
sawing  organ.  Usually  smaller.  Saw-flies.  Ten- 
thredinidce. 
BB.  Abdomen  constricted  at  the  union  with  the  thorax. 

C.  Wings  almost  entirely  without  veins  in  many  species. 
Size   small,    colors   often   metallic;    abdomen   short. 
Chalcidoidea. 
CC.  Wings  with  more  distinct  venation.     Size  variable. 

D.  Abdomen   very   much   compressed   laterally   seg- 
ments   usually    appearing    as    if    telescoped    to- 
gether.    Gall-flies.     Cijnipidce. 
DD.  Abdomens    more  slender;    fore  wings  without  a 
stigma.  *     Ichneumonoidea. 
AA.  Trochanters  of  the  hind  legs  consisting  of  a  single   segment. 
Females  often  with  a  stinging  organ. 

B.  With  what  appears  to  be  a  knot  or  hump  on  the  peti- 
ole or  stem  connecting  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen. 
True  Ants.     Formicoidea. 

*See  Fig.  117. 


162  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

BB.  Without  the  knot-hke  structure  on  the  petiole. 

C.  First  segment  of  the  posterior  tarsi  hairy  and  adapted 
for    carrying    pollen.     Bodies    frequently   liairy   and 
rather  stout.     Bees.     Apoidea. 
CC.  First  segment  of  posterior    tarsi  not  adapted  for  car- 
rying   pollen.     Usually    naked    forms    or    with    few- 
hairs.     (Exceptions  are  not  rare.) 
D.  With  the  fore  wings  having  a  single  longituchnal 
fold  or  pleat  when  at  rest.     True  Wasps.     Ves- 
poidea. 
DD.  Front  wings  not    folded  when  at  rest.      Digger- 
wasps.      Sphecoidea. 


CHAPTER  XTII 
THE  INSECT  COLLECTION 

For  the  beginner  as  well  as  for  the  older  student  of 
entomology,  the  collection  of  insects  is  the  most  fascinat- 
ing phase  of  the  work.  It  necessitates  getting  out  into 
the  open.  It  develops  the  powers  of  observation  and 
affords  at  the  same  time  a  profitable  study  and  a  never- 
failing  source  of  amusement.  And  it  need  not  be  con- 
fined to  the  warm  months.  The  winter  insect  fauna  is 
extensive  enough  to  furnish  the  excuse  for  many  rambles 
over  the  snowclad  landscape.  Winter  studies  of  insects 
are  not  only  possible,  but  extremely  necessary  for  the 
person  who  wishes  to  learn  of  insects  not  only  in  their 
active  stages,  but  throughout  their  entire  lives. 

105.  Collector's  Outfit.  The  collectors  outfit  may  be 
simple  or  elaborate.  The  one  who  learns  to  take  and 
care  for  specimens  with  the  simplest  possible  apparatus 
will  be  least  likely  to  lose  desirable  specimens  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  equipment.  The  first  necessity  is  the 
killing-bottle.  The  standard  killing-bottle  is  made  of  any 
wide-mouthed  bottle  into  which  is  put  a  little  pure  po- 
tassium cyanide.  This  substance  is  a  deadly  poison,  but  no 
danger  attends  its  use  if  its  nature  is  borne  in  mind  and 
the  simplest  care  is  exercised. 

To  make  up  a  four-ounce  cyanide  bottle,  pour  a 
scant  teaspoonful  of  small  lumps  of  the  cyanide  into 
the  bottle.  Next,  mix  some  plaster  of  Paris  with  water 
until  it  is  just  thin  enough  to  pour  readily.     Cover  the 

163 


164  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

cyanide  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  with  this.  Allow  the 
plaster  to  set  and  to  dry  thoroughly,  place  some  absorbent 
paper  loosely  in  the  bottle  and  keep  tightly  corked  to  pre- 
vent its  losing  strength.  This  bottle  will  be  effective  for 
an  entire  season  and  cannot  harm  one  who  handles  it 
unless  it  is  broken.     Discarded  bottles  should  be  buried. 

In  addition  to  the  cyanide  bottle  one  should  have 
small  boxes  or  tobacco  tins  for  living  specimens,  others  for 
the  specimen  taken  out  of  the  cyanide  bottle,  where  they 
should  be  left  only  until  they  are  certainly  dead,  and 
some  tubes  of  alcohol  or  formalin  in  which  to  place  speci- 
mens which  are  to  be  preserved  in  liquid.  All  larvae 
should  be  taken  alive  or  placed  in  the  liquid,  never  in  the 
cyanide  jars.  There  should  be  several  cyanide  jars  for 
the  different  types  of  insects.  Moths  and  butterflies 
should  be  kept  separated  from  other  insects  in  the  jars 
and  not  more  than  one  or  two  specimens  of  these  should 
go  into  the  same  jar  at  one  time. 

Any  bag  or  knapsack  in  which  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
these  materials  can  be  carried  safely  is  a  good  collecting 
bag. 

Many  collectors,  especially  beginners,  think  of  the  net 
as  a  most  necessary  part  of  the  equipment.  The  experi- 
enced collector  uses  a  net  for  comparatively  few  of  his 
captures.  Specimens  which  can  be  taken  without  the 
net  are  likely  to  be  taken  in  better  condition  if  it 
is  not  used.  Experience  alone  will  teach  where  it  must 
be  used.  Satisfactory  nets  can  now  be  purchased  very 
cheaply,  or  they  can  be  made  at  home.  The  requisites 
are:  a  bag  of  any  light  but  strong  m^aterial,  from  eight 
to  twelve  inches  in  diameter  and  from  twelve  to  twenty 
inches  deep;  a  strong  metal  ring  firmly  attached  to  a 
light  handle  not  more  than  three  feet  long.     Special  nets 


THE  INSECT  COLLECTION 


165 


may  be  desired  with  longer  handles.  A  large  and  strong 
clasp  knife  or,  better,  a  sheath  knife,  may  well  complete 
the  outfit  for  ordinary  general  collecting. 

Experience,  again,  must  teach  where  the  insects  are  to 
be  found.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  few 
situations  where  some  sort  of  insect  hfe  does  not  exist. 
Special  equipment  for  collecting  aquatic  forms  is  required. 
This  can  always  be  improvised  and  no  collection  should  be 


Fig.  118. — Design  for  Insect-net  Frame. 

1,  Heavy  spring-wire  ring;  2,  detail  of  end  of  handle;  a,  groove  into  which 
the  wire  at  o,  on  figure  of  ring  fits;  b,  clamp;  c,  holes  into  which  ends  of  the 
wire  at  c  on  the  ring  fit. 

considered  representative  which  does  not  include  the  in- 
sect life  of  the  near-by  waters. 

Electric  lights  are  quite  a  prolific  source  of  specimens 
for  the  collector,  but  they  teach  nothing  of  the  habits  of 
the  insects  except  that  they  are  attracted  to  lights  and 
are  night  flyers. 

106.  Mounting  Specimens.  The  equipment  for  mount- 
ing and  preserving  the  specimens  may,  like  the  collectors 
outfit,  be  either  simple  or  elaborate.  For  adult  specimens 
pins  are  usually  considered  necessary,  and  a  place  to  keep 
the  pinned  specimens  is  no  less  so.     Insect  pins  must  be 


166 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


purchased  but  are  fairly  cheap  and  within  the  reach  of 
all.  Never  try  to  mount  specimens  with  ordinary  pins. 
Aside  from  the  pins  nothing  needs  be  purchased.  Cigar 
boxes,  lined  with  pith  or  corrugated  pasteboard,  make 
very  satisfactory  storage  places  for  the  beginner's  collec- 
tion and  not  a  few  insects  in  the  larger  collections  are 
stored  in  such  receptacles.  From  these  one  may  go  up 
the  scale  through  the  homema,de  boxes  with   either   glass 


Fig.  119. — Details  of  the  Frame  Work  for  an  Exibition  Case  to  be  Made 
at  Home  or  in  the  School  Laboratory. 

or  wooden  cover,  the  homemade  or  purchased  cabinet, 
with  drawers  for  the  specimens,  the  specially  made  box 
of  the  "Schmitt"  type  to  the  most  modern  metal  boxes  in 
metal  cabinets.  Very  cheap  and  serviceable  exhibition 
cases  with  glass  tops,  suitable  for  home  use  or  for  the 
rural  or  even  the  city  school,  may  be  made  at  home  or 
by  the  local  carpenter.  Get  at  any  planing  mill  some 
strips   of   "nosing"   about   two  and   three-quarters   inches 


THE  INSECT  COLLECTION  167 

wide  by  three-quarters  thick.  Have  a  groove  one-eighth 
inch  wide  and  three-eighths  deep,  cut  two  and  three- 
eighths  inches  from  the  flat  edge.  Cut  these  strips  in  a 
mitre  box  into  lengths  suitable  for  the  size  cases  desired, 
twelve  inches  by  sixteen  or  eighteen  is  a  good  size.  Var- 
nish outside  and  paint  white  inside.  Now,  for  bottoms, 
take  two  thicknesses  of  corrugated  pasteboard,  such  as  is 
used  for  packing.  Cut  these  to  the  size  of  the  inside  of 
the  frame.  Tack  or  glue  them  to  a  board  cut  just  the 
size  of  the  outside  of  the  frame.  Paste  clear  white  paper 
over  the  pasteboard  and  a  very  neat  pinning  surface  is 
secured.  Glass  may  be  secured  cut  so  that  it  will  just 
fit  in  the  grooves  already  cut  in  the  frame  pieces.  The 
frame  is  completed  by  nailing  the  corners  together  with 
small  finish  nails.  This  should  be  done  before  the  varnish- 
ing of  the  outside.  The  inner  surfaces  should  be  painted 
before  the  nailing  is  done.  The  bottom  may  be  fastened 
with  brads  or  with  small  hooks.  The  specimens  are 
pinned  in  the  desired  order  on  the  bottom  and  the  frame 
then  placed  over  them.  Thej^  are  then  in  good  shape  for 
preservation  and  may  be  placed  on  the  wall  for  an  exhibit. 

A  box  as  described  may  be  made  in  the  manual  training 
department  of  any  school,  and  makes  an  excellent  exercise 
for  the  members  of  the  class.  The  cost  for  materials  should 
be  less  than  twenty-five  cents  per  box. 

These  boxes  are  suitable  mostly  for  adult  insects,  but 
some  of  the  other  stages  may  be  kept  in  them  also.  Some 
forms  will  have  to  be  kept  in  liquid.  These  are  not  usu- 
ally so  suitable  for  exhibition  purposes  and  may  be  stored 
as  convenient.  Vials  with  specimens  in  liquid  are  fre- 
quently pinned  right  in  the  boxes  with  the  adults  and 
should  be  so  kept  where  they  are  in  such  condition  as 
to  show  anything  of  the  original  form  and  color. 


168 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


.#> 


107.  Method  of  Pinning  Insects. 

The  preparation  of  the  specimens 
for  the  cabinet  or  exhibition  case 
requires  some  care,  lots  of  patience, 
and  as  much  practice  as  one  can 
get.  Beetles  should  be  pinned 
through  the  right  wing  cover, 
near  the  base.  So  should  grass- 
hoppers and  their  relatives.  All 
other  insects  should  be  pinned 
through  the  middle  of  the  thorax 
between  the  bases  of  the  front 
wings.  The  pin  should  be  so  placed 
as  to  have  the  head  of  the  insect 
slightly  higher  than  the  opposite 
end,  and  about  one-fourth  or  one- 
fifth  of  the  length  of  the  pin 
should  be  allowed  to  project  above 
the  body  of  the  insect. 

Different  sizes  of  pins  are  made 
so  that  the  different  insects  may 
be  accommodated.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  many  kinds  that  are 
too  small  to  be  pinned  without 
serious  damage.  These  may  be 
mounted  on  points.  Points  are 
made  usually  of  stiff  paper  or  light 
cardboard  cut  into  "points"  one- 
fourth   inch   long   and   about  one- 

FiG.  120. — Methods  of  Pinning  Insects. 

1,  Beetle,  showing  slant  of  body  on  pin;  2, 
beetle  showing  where  pin  is  inserted  ;  3,  grass- 
hopper, showing  where  pin  is  inserted;  4,  true 
bug,  showing  where  pin  is  inserted  ;  5,  pointed 
insect,  showing  method  of  pointing. 


THE  INSECT  COLLECTION 


169 


sixteenth  inch  wide  at  the  base  and  tapering  to  a  point,  the 
width  of  the  point  depending  to  some  extent  on  the  size  of 
the  insect  to  be  mounted.  These  points  are  pinned,  the  pin 
being  placed  as  near  to  the  base  as  possible.  The  insect 
is  glued  to  the  other  end  of  the  point,  glue,  shellac  or 
Canada  balsam  being  used  for  the  sticking  material.  The 
point  is  so  arranged 
that  it  reaches  only  to 
the  middle  of  the 
under  side  of  the  in- 
sect, the  insect  being 
in  such  a  position  that 
the  head  points  forward 
while  the  insect  is  to 
the  left  of  the  pin. 

Still  smaller  insects 
may  be  mounted  in 
Canada  balsam  or  gly- 
cerine on  glass  slides 
for  study  under  the 
microscope. 

All  insects  collected 
should  be  labeled.  For 
pinned  insects  this  is 
accomphshed  by  pin- 
ning small  slips  of  paper 

with  the  desired  data  on  the  pin  just  beneath  the  insect. 
Several  such  slips  may  be  used.  The  data  placed  on  the 
slips  should  include  the  date,  the  locality  and  the  name 
of  the  collector,  the  latter  being  the  least  important.  In 
many  cases  the  name  of  the  plant  upon  which  the  insect 
was  found  is  added.  Notebook  data  may  be  and  should 
be  more  extensive.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  accession 


Fig.  121. — Insect  Collection  Arranged 
in  Home-made  Exhibition  Cases. 


17Q  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

numbers  pinned  on  each  specimen,  these  numbers  refer- 
ring to  similar  numbers  in  the  notebook  under  which  all  the 
data  are  recorded.  For  reared  specimens  this  is  the  only 
way  to  keep  full  accounts  of  the  Hfe  histories  of  the  specimen. 
Card  note  systems  are  much  more  convenient  than  the 
older  notebooks,  but  the  collector  will  make  his  own 
choice  in  this. 

108.  Spreading  Board.  Moths  and  butterflies  must  be 
spread   on  a  spreading  board   which  is  another    requisite 

for  the  outfit.  The  spread- 
ing board  consists  essen- 
tially of  two  smooth  pieces 
of  board,  which  must  be  of 
some  softwood,  wide  enough 
to  accommodate  the  wings 

of  the  specimens,  placed 
Fig.  122. — Spreading;  Board  Show-         .,,  .     , 

T./,  f  T31    ■      +u   o  With     a     groove     between 

ing  Manner  of  Placing  the  Spec-  ° 

imen  for  Drying.  them   for   the  body  of  the 

insect.  Below  this  groove 
must  be  some  soft  material  for  the  pin  to  stick  in  and 
support  the  insect.  The  boards  must  be  arranged  so 
that  the  insect's  wings  will  slant  upward  from  the  body 
very  slightly.  These  parts  are  mounted  so  that  they 
will  be  firm.  The  figure  accompanying  the  description 
will  suggest  the  details  of  construction. 

Insects  placed  on  the  spreading  board  should  be  pinned 
so  that  the  bases  of  the  wings  are  at  exactly  the  same 
height  as  the  edges  of  the  boards.  The  front  wings  are 
laid  flat  on  the  board  and  pinned  with  their  hind  margins 
at  right  angles  to  the  body,  and  the  hind  wings  are  then 
drawn  forward  so  that  their  front  margins  are  concealed 
beneath  the  front  wings.  Next  a  strip  of  blotting  paper  or 
other  material  is  pinned  over  the  wings,  care  being  taken 


THE  INSECT  COLLECTION  171 

to  see  that  no  pin  goes  through  the  wing  tissue.  The 
original  temporary  pins  are  taken  from  the  wings  and  the 
specimen  is  allowed  to  dry  for  several  days.  When  thor- 
oughly dry  the  wings  will  remain  in  position.  Specimens 
must  be  spread  before  they  dry  out  and  the  wings  "set." 
Otherwise  they  must  be  relaxed  and  this  is  never  a  satisfac- 
tory operation.  Grasshoppers  and  other  insects  are  some- 
times placed  on  the  spreader  and  have  only  the  wings  on 
one  side  spread,  but  generally  the  only  insects  spread  are 
the  Lepidoptera  and  some  Neuropterous  forms. 

109.  Breeding-cage.  Life-history  collections  are  of  the 
greatest  value  and  students  should  be  encouraged  to  get 
all  stages  of  as  many  insects  as  possible.  This  is  some- 
times easiest  done  by  getting  eggs  or  larvse  and  keeping 
them  in  breeding  cages  while  they  undergo  their  trans- 
formations. Many  things  may  serve  as  such  breeding 
cages.  The  qualities  required  are  some  ventilation  and 
proper  moisture  and  temperature,  as  well  as  regular  feed- 
ing. A  simple  breeding-cage  for  small  insects  is  a  lan- 
tern globe  set  on  a  flowerpot  filled  with  soil  and  having 
a  piece  of  cheesecloth  tied  over  the  top.  Food  may  be 
given  day  by  daj^  or  may  be  furnished  by  plants  grown 
in  the  pot. 

Larger  cases  may  be  made  specially.  A  very  satis- 
factory one  is  figured.  It  is  merely  a  box  made  to  fit  a 
window.  The  outer  side  is  enclosed  with  wire  screen, 
while  the  doors  are  of  glass.  There  may  be  two  or  more 
compartments  in  such  a  cage.  It  is  better  to  have  gal- 
vanized iron  pans  made  to  fit  the  bottom.  These  may 
be  filled  with  sand  or  soil  or  they  may  contain  water. 
In  the  latter  case  the  breeding-cage  makes  an  excellent 
aquarium  for  aquatic  forms.  Local  conditions  will  gov- 
ern   the    form    of    breeding-cage    most    used.     The    main 


172 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


thing  is  not  the  cage  but  the  careful  attention  given  the 
insects.  Without  this  care  and  the  observation  it  in- 
volves the  greater  part  of  the  value  of  rearing  insects  will 
be  lost. 

Much  more  might  be  said  on  the  subject  of  rearing 
insects  as  well  as  about  the  apparatus  for  the  collector 
and  the  equipment  in  the  laboratory.  Just  as  good  re- 
sults may  be  expected,   however,   from  allowing  the  stu- 


■tjaar  tt^'j^  -^"^ '  "^^^^^ 

pr  j 

1   \         jBnf'                      ^l^ 

nf^mgm 

^^^^^^^^K^^^^<^ 

Fig.  123. — Window  Breeding-cage. 


dent  to  work  out  his  own  methods,  merely  being  careful 
to  see  that  the  conventional  methods  of  mounting  are  fol- 
lowed so  that  the  specimens  will  not  lose  their  value  for 
exchange  with  other  collections.  While  all  the  equipment 
here  described  is  simple  and  inexpensive  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  have  anything  more  elaborate,  it  does  add  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  work  if  some  of  the  materials  can 
be  purchased  from  the  manufacturers  of  entomological 
supplies,  as  these   are  in   better  position  to  make  goods 


THE  INSECT  COLLECTION 


173 


exactly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  subject  than  the  ama- 
teur can  be. 

110.  Protection  from  Injury.  The  collection,  after  it  is 
completed  is  sul)jcct  to  the  attacks  of  many  pests  and 
may  also  be  injured  by  dust,  mold,  rusting  of  pins  and  a 
variety  of  causes. 

Boxes  with  tightly  fitting  lids  are  the  best  protection 
against  the  insect  pests  but  even  these  will  not  entirely 
prevent  injury,  as  the  insects  will  steal  into  the  boxes  while 


Fig.  124. — A  Group  of  Butterflies  Arranged  in  a  "  Riker  Mount " 
on  Cotton  for  Decorative  Purposes. 


they  are  opened  for  study.  These  pests  are  most  abun- 
dant and  destructive  in  warm  weather  but  work  to  some 
extent  throughout  the  year,  especially  in  warm  rooms. 

To  free  the  collect'on  from  pests  requires  a  consider- 
able amount  of  care.  If  the  boxes  are  not  tightly  closed, 
cigar  boxes  for  instance,  they  may  all  be  placed  in  a  large, 
paper-lined  goods  box  for  which  a  tight  lid  has  been  made, 
and  fumigated.  The  best  substance  for  this  fumigation 
is  carbon  bisulphide.  This  will  be  still  more  effective 
if  the  boxes  are  opened  slightly  before  they  are  placed  in 


174  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

the  fumigating  box.  Place  the  carbon  bisulphide  in  an 
open  dish  near  the  top  of  the  box.  Use  at  the  rate  of 
about  one  ounce  to  ten  cubic  feet  of  space.  Be  sure  to 
have  the  temperature  at  least  65°  to  70°  F.  Keep  fire 
away  as  the  material  is  explosive.  Repeat  the  fumigation 
once  every  month  or  six  weeks  during  the  warm  weather, 
or  whenever  any  signs  of  the  injurious  insects  appear. 

As  protection  against  mold  and  similar  troubles  be  sure 
to  have  the  insects  reasonably  dry  before  they  are  closed 
up  tightly  and  permanently,  then  keep  the  collection  in  a 
dry  place.  Insect  boxes  must  be  handled  with  care  at 
all  times  to  avoid  breaking  legs,  antennae  and  other  deli- 
cate structures  from  the  specimens  by  jarring. 

111.  Microscopes.  In  addition  to  the  equipment  neces- 
sary for  collecting  and  mounting  insects  a  little  more  is 
required  for  their  study.  Of  this,  the  most  important 
part  is  the  microscope  or  lens.  The  most  useful  lens  will 
be  a  hand  lens  magnifying  about  twenty  diameters.  Pro- 
vided with  such  a  lens  the  student  will  seldom  need  a 
compound  microscope.  A  good  plan  for  a  beginning 
course  in  entomology  is  for  the  class  to  be  furnished  with 
two  or  three  compound  microscopes  and  for  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  to  have  his  own  hand  lens. 


PART  II— ECONOMIC  ENTOMOLOGY 


CHAPTER  XIV 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

112.  House  Flies  (26).*  The  house  fly  is  too  well  known 
to  need  description.  It  will  hardly  be  confused  with  any 
other  species  except,  possibly,  the  stable  fly  (p.  180),  from 
which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  strong 
piercing  mouth-parts — which  enable  the  latter  species  to 
bite— and  by  the  six  dark  lines  on  the  thorax.  Smaller  flies 
belong  to  other  species,  contrary  to  the  popular  notion  that 
little  flies  grow  larger  as  the  season  advances.  Careful 
counts  have  shown  that  practically  99  per  cent  of  the  flies 
found  in  dining-rooms  are  house  flies. 

"Musca  domestica  commonly  lays  its  eggs  on  horse 
manure.  This  substance  seems  to  be  its  favorite  larval 
food.  It  will  oviposit  on  cow  manure,  but  we  have  not  been 
able  to  rear  it  in  this  substance.  It  will  also  breed  in  human 
excrement,  and  from  this  habit  it  becomes  very  dangerous 
to  the  health  of  human  beings,  carrying,  as  it  does,  the  germs 
of  intestinal  diseases  such  as  typhoid  fever  and  cholera 
from  excreta  to  food  supplies.  It  will  also  lay  its  eggs  on 
other  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  material,  but  of  the 

*Musca  domestica  Linn.  Family  Muscidoe,  see  page  14L  Numbers 
in  parentheses  refer  to  publications  cited  in  Appendix  A,  which 
should  be  consulted  for  more  detailed  information. 

175 


176 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


flies  that  Infest  dwelling  houses,  both  in  cities  and  on  farms, 
a  vast  proportion  come  from  horse  manure."  (Howard.) 
Where  horse  manure  is  not  available  it  commonly  breeds  in 
other  manure  or  in  fermenting  vegetable  material  or  slops. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  twenty-four  hours,  the  larvae 
or  maggots  become  grown  in  from  five  to  seven  days,  and 
the  pupal  stage  lasts  about  the  same  time,  so  that  a  complete 
generation  may  develop  in  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  de- 
pending upon  the  temperature.     Each  female  lays  about 


Fig.  125. — The  common  house  fly  {Musca  domestica).    (After  Howard, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

Puparium  at  left;    adult  next;    larva  and  enlarged  parts  at  right.     All  enlarged. 


120  eggs  in  a  batch  and  may  lay  four  times,  so  that  it  is 
evident  that  the  species  multiplies  with  extreme  rapidity. 
The  adult  flies  hibernate  over  winter  in  attics,  barns,  etc., 
and  the  pupae  may  hibernate  in  the  soil  or  under  manure  or 
straw.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  first  flies  which 
appear  in  the  spring  should  be  vigorously  combated  so  as 
to  prevent  the  countless  numbers  to  which  they  will  give 
rise  later. 

"In  army  camps,  in  mining  camps,  and  in  great  public 
works,  bringing  together  large  numbers  of  men  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  time,  there  is  seldom  the  proper  care  of  excreta, 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         177 

and  the  carriage  of  typhoid  germs  from  the  latrines  and 
privies  to  food  by  flies  is  common  and  often  results  in  epi- 
demics of  typhoid  fever.  ...  In  farmhouses  in  small  com- 
munities and  even  in  the  badly  cared-for  portions  of  large 
cities  typhoid  germs  are  carried  from  excrement  to  food  by 


Fig.  126. — Window  fly  trap  showing  bait  tray  removed. 


flies,  and  the  proper  supervision  and  treatment  of  the  breed- 
ing places  of  the  house  fly  become  most  important  elements 
in  the  prevention  of  typhoid. 

"In  the  same  way  other  intestinal  germ  diseases  are 
carried  by  flies.  The  Asiatic  cholera,  dysentery,  and  in- 
fantile diarrhea  are  also  carried.  .  .  .  There  is  strong  cir- 


178  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

cumstantial  evidence  that  tuberculosis,  anthrax,  yaws,  oph- 
thalmia, small-pox,  tropical  sore,  and  parasitic  worms  may 
be,  and  are,  so  carried.  Actual  laboratory  proof  exists  in 
the  cases  of  a  number  of  these  diseases,  and  where  lacking,  is 
replaced  by  circumstantial  evidence  amounting  almost  to 
certainty."     (Howard.) 

The  screening  of  windows  and  doors  and  the  use  of  sticky 
fly-papers  are  preventive  measures  known  to  all.  A  two 
per  cent  solution  of  formaldehyde  will  destroy  the  flies  and 
may  be  placed  in  shallow  saucers  to  which  they  will  be  at- 
tracted. Adding  milk  or  syrup  and  dropping  in  a  piece  of 
bread  will  make  it  more  attractive.  Where  flies  or  mos- 
quitoes become  too  numerous  they  may  be  destroyed  by 
fumigating  with  pyrethrum  powder.  About  one  pound 
should  be  used  for  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  space.  Place 
the  powder  on  pans,  dampening  with  a  little  kerosene  into 
cone  shapes,  to  facilitate  burning.  Make  all  windows  and 
doors  as  tight  as  possible,  light  the  cones,  and  leave  over 
night.  The  fumes  are  not  poisonous  to  persons  and  will  not 
injure  furnishings.  The  chief  effort  in  the  control  of  house 
flies  should  be  directed  toward  preventing  their  breeding  in 
horse  manure,  for  a  single  stable  will  supply  flies  for  a  whole 
neighborhood.  As  far  as  possible  manure  should  be  kept 
in  a  tight  box  or  pit  which  can  be  properly  screened  where 
necessary.  Recent  experiments  *  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  (26)  have  shown  that  the  eggs  and  maggots  in 
the  manure  may  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  borax  or  calcined 
colemanite.  Ten  ounces  of  borax  or  12  ounces  of  calcined 
colemanite  should  be  used  for  every  10  cubic  feet  (8  bushels), 
of  manure  immediately  upon  its  removal  from  the  barn. 
Apply  the  borax  with  a  flour  sifter  or  any  fine  sieve,  particu- 
larly around  the  edges  of  the  pile,  for  there  is  where  most  of 
*  Bulletin  118,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         179 


Fig.    127. — Top   of  garbage   can   with  small   balloon   fly  trap   of   the 
Hodge  type  attached.     (After  Bishopp,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


^--\ 


Fig.   128.- 


-Conical  hoop  fly  trap;    side  view. 
Dept.  Agr.) 


(After  Bishopp,  U.  S. 


.4,  hoops  forming  frame  at  bottom;  B,  hoops  forming  frame  at  top;  C,  top 
of  trap  made  of  barrel  head;  D,  strips  around  door  ;  E,  door  frame  ;  F,  screen  on 
door;  G,  buttons  holding  door;  //,  screen  on  outside  of  trap;  /,  strips  on  side  of 
trap  between  hoops;  J,  tips  of  these  strips  projecting  to  form  legs;  K,  cone;  L, 
united  edges  of  screen  forming  cone;    .1/,  aperture  at  apex  of  cone. 


180  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

the  eggs  are  laid  and  where  the  maggots  congregate,  and 
sprinkle  two  or  three  gallons  of  water  over  the  treated 
manure.  Such  treatment  should  be  given  with  each  addi- 
tion of  fresh  manure  to  the  pile,  but  where  it  is  kept  in 
closed  boxes,  less  frequent  treatment  will  be  required.  This 
treatment  is  cheap  and  is  well  worth  while.  A  maggot-trap 
has  also  been  devised  (see  26),  for  the  treatment  of  horse 
manure,  by  which  the  maggots  may  be  easily  and  cheaply 
removed  from  horse  manure. 

Sanitary  privies  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  pre- 
vention of  the  spread  of  disease  by  flies  in  country  districts 
(39).  These  should  be  required  in  all  public  places  such  as 
schools,  railway  stations,  etc.,  and  private  owners  should 
install  their  own  in  self-defense.  The  "wet  system"  should 
be  used  so  that  the  surface  may  be  kept  covered  with  kero- 
sene and  all  possibility  of  fly-contamination  be  thus  pre- 
vented. Fly  traps  (see  40c)  should  be  used  on  garbage 
cans,  and  can  be  bought  at  most  hardware  stores.  These 
will  catch  quantities  of  flies  and  similar  home-made  traps 
placed  in  barn  windows,  in  barns,  and  wherever  flies 
assemble,  will  very  materially  aid  in  reducing  their  numbers. 

113.  The  Stable  Fly  (27).*  The  stable  fly  is  so  called  on 
account  of  its  habitual  presence  in  stables,  where  it  becomes 
a  serious  nuisance  by  biting  cattle  and  horses.  It  closely 
resembles  the  common  house  fly,  but  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  strong  mouth-parts,  which  enable  it  to  make  a  sharp 
"bite,"  and  by  the  black  spots  on  the  abdomen  (Fig.  129). 
On  this  account  stable  flies  are  sometimes  called  "biting 
house  flies"  by  those  who  do  not  distinguish  them,  and  the 
saying  has  come  that  "flies  bite  before  a  storm,"  because 
the  stable  flies  enter  houses  and  are  more  annoying  just  be- 
fore a  storm.  The  stable  fly  has  recently  come  into  prom- 
*  Stomoxys  calcitrans  Linn.     Family  il/MSCidoe,  see  page  14L 


INSECTS   AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS 


181 


inence  as  the  possible  means  of  the  transmission  of  infantile 
paralysis,  though  this  indictment  now  seems  unsubstanti- 
ated, and  probably  is  the  means  of  transmitting  other 
diseases. 

The  life  history  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  house 
fly,  but  development  takes  place  more  slowly,  the  complete 
life  cycle  requiring  three  or  foiu'  weeks  under  favoraljle  con- 
ditions.    Although  the  larvae  live  in  horse  manure  they  have 


Fig.  129. — The  stable  fly  or  biting  house  fly  {Stomoxys  calcilrans). 
Adult,  larva,  puparium,  and  details.  All  enlarged.  (After 
Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


been  found  much  more  abundant  in  straw,  particularly 
oat  straw,  and  in  manure  where  straw  has  been  used 
liberally. 

The  same  methods  of  control  as  advocated  for  the  house 
fly  are  advisable  around  stables,  and  the  leaving  of  strawy 
manure  in  piles  and  allowing  the  barnyard  to  become  knee 
deep  in  it,  furnish  the  best  conditions  for  the  development 
of  these  flies.  In  the  grain  belt,  where  large  loose  stacks  of 
straw  are  scattered  over  the  fields,  heavy  summer  and  fall 


182 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


rains  will  make  them  ideal  breeding  places  for  the  stable  fly. 
Animals  scatter  the  straw  and  add  manure,  which  makes 
conditions  more  favorable.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that 
straw  which  is  to  be  fed  be  stacked  with  the  sides  nearly- 
vertical  and  the  tops  rounding,  so  as  to  shed  rain.  All  straw 
not  required  for  feed  should  be  burned  or,  better,  scattered 


.,^i 


Fig.  130. — Hodge  type  window  trap.  At  left,  trap  with  end  removed 
to  show  construction;  at  right,  cross-section  of  trap  placed  in  a 
window.      (After  Bishopp,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

A,  end  of  trap;  B,  upper  side  of  folds  in  screen;  C,  lower  side  of  folds  in  screen; 
D,  portion  of  end  of  trap  sawed  out  and  returned  after  attaching  screen;  E,  holes 
along  apex  of  folds;  F,  door  for  removing  dead  flies;  G,  window  sill;  H,  upper 
window  sash;   /,  inside  entrance  for  flies;   O,  outside  entrances. 

over  the  fields  and  plowed  under.  Stacks  not  used  during 
the  winter  should  be  destroyed  in  the  spring,  before  the 
flies  commence  to  multiply  rapidly.  In  portions  of  a  stack 
of  straw  in  Gainesville,  Texas,  in  March,  1913,  as  many  as 
300  pupae  were  found  in  a  single  cubic  foot  of  straw. 

The  flies  may  be  caught  as  they  enter  or  leave  the  stable 
by  means  of  traps  built  in  the  window  frames,  as  devised  by 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         183 

Prof.  C.  F.  Hodge  (see  40c).  They  should  be  placed  in 
windows  on  the  brightest  side  of  the  barn  and  near  to  the 
cows  or  horses  within.  Other  windows  should  be  darkened 
by  hanging  canvas  or  sacks  over  them,  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  ventilation,  but  so  as  to  drive  the  flies  to  the  lighter 
window.  Fig.  130  shows  the  construction  of  the  trap.  At 
the  bottom  a  space  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  running 
entirely  across  the  window,  is  left  on  both  sides  of  the  frame. 
Above  this  is  placed  a  roof  or  ridge  of  screen  wire  having 
holes  large  enough  for  the  flies  to  pass  through  punched 
through  its  top  at  two-inch  intervals.  To  capture  the  house 
flies  suitable  bait  is  placed  in  the  pans  beneath  this  ridge. 
The  flies  ascend  through  the  holes  and  are  then  unable  to 
escape.  The  sides  of  the  trap  are  also  made  of  wire  screen- 
ing bent  inward  and  upward  in  two  horizontal  folds  across 
the  window,  one  toward  the  bottom  and  one  toward  the  top. 
The  ends  of  the  screen  are  tacked  tight  and  a  series  of  small 
holes  are  punched  along  the  inner  edge  of  each  of  the  folds. 
The  angles  of  these  folds  should  not  be  too  sharp  and  less 
than  45°  or  the  flies  will  not  go  up  the  angle.  In  trying  to 
go  in  and  out  of  the  window  the  flies  enter  the  holes  at  the 
apex  of  the  fold,  but  are  then  unable  to  escape,  as  on  the  in- 
side the  holes  are  on  the  projecting  ridge  and  are  not  found 
by  the  flies,  which  seek  the  light.  Portable  traps  made  on 
much  the  same  plan  may  be  used  within  the  stable. 

114.  Mosquitoes  (28,  34,  38,  46,  57).*  Formerly  mos- 
quitoes were  regarded  merely  as  aggravating  nuisances,  but 
in  recent  years  we  have  come  to  learn  that  certain  species 
are  among  the  most  important  carriers  of  disease,  so  that 
the  whole  problem  of  mosquito  control  has  assumed  new 
interest.  The  common  house  mosquito  f  (46),  is  entirely 
innocent  of  carrying  disease,  so  far  as  we  know,  but  about 
*  Family  Culicidw,  see  page  133.  f  Culex  pipiens. 


184  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

fifteen  years  ago  it  was  demonstrated  that  nearly  related 
species  of  the  genus  Anopheles  are  responsible  for  the  trans- 
mission of  malarial  fever  and  that  the  dreaded  yellow  fever 
is  spread  by  the  yellow-fever  mosquito.*  Indeed,  these 
diseases  are  spread  entirely  by  mosquitoes.  As  a  result 
of  this  knowledge  Havana  and  Panama  have  been  prac- 
tically freed  from  yellow  fever,  and  large  areas  of  country, 
formerly  almost  uninhabitable  on  account  of  malaria,  have 
been  reclaimed.  The  yellow-fever  mosquito  is  strictly  a 
southern  species,  but  different  species  of  the  malarial  mos- 
quitoes are  found  in  all  sections  of  the  country.  The  latter 
(Anopheles)  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common  mos- 
quitoes by  the  fact  that  their  wings  are  marked  with  black- 
ish spots,  the  palpi  of  the  females  are  as  long  as  the  pro- 
boscis or  beak,  and  when  they  rest  on  a  wall  or  ceiling  the 
body  is  held  at  an  angle  from  the  surface,  while  those  of  the 
common  species  are  parallel  to  it. 

Mosquitoes  usually  hibernate  as  adults  in  houses,  barns, 
or  whatever  retreats  they  can  find.  With  the  first  warm 
days  of  spring  the  females  lay  their  eggs  on  the  nearest  per- 
manent pools  and  then  die.  The  larvse  of  different  species 
have  quite  different  food  habits  and  hence  are  found  in 
different  places,  but  practically  all  live  in  stagnant  water, 
and  do  not  develop  in  damp  grass  or  vegetation  as  commonly 
supposed.  The  common  house  mosquito  breeds  in  rain 
barrels,  open  tanks  or  cisterns,  in  puddles,  ditches,  tin  cans, 
ponds,  etc.  Occasionally  a  clogged  eaves  trough  will  harbor 
enough  water  to  allow  a  generation  to  mature  in  the  water 
collected.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
hatch  in  a  day  or  two.  The  larvsB  are  the  well-known 
"wrigglers,"  and  feed  on  small  animals  and  vegetable  life 
in  the  water.  Those  of  the  house  mosquito  may  be  seen 
*  ^des  calopMS  Meig. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         185 

hanging  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  through  which  they 
breathe  by  means  of  a  long  air-tube  attached  to  the  tip  of 
abdomen,  while  those  of  the  malarial  mosquitoes  lie  parallel 


Fig.   131. — A  malaria  mosquito   {Anopheles  quadrimaculatus) . 
Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)     All  greatly  enlarged, 
o,  eggs;  fc,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  male,  and  e,  female  adulta. 


(After 


to  the  surface  and  do  not  have  the  air-tube.  When  grown 
the  larvae  change  to  the  curiously  shaped  pupae  (Fig.  131), 
•which  have  breathing  tubes  attached  to  the  thorax.     In  hot 


186  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

weather  the  complete  hfe  cycle  may  be  completed  in  two 
weeks  and  as  each  egg-mass  contains  from  75  to  200  eggs, 
mosquitoes  multiply  very  rapidly.  It  is  only  the  females 
which  have  piercing  mouth-parts  enabling  them  to  "bite," 
the  mouth-parts  of  the  males  being  more  feeble  and  being 
used  for  sucking  vegetable  juices,  which  are,  doubtless,  the 
natural  food  of  both  sexes.  The  males  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  females  by  their  feathery  antennae. 

The  best  means  of  mosquito  control  is  to  prevent  the 
development  of  the  larvse,  which  may  be  done  by  abolishing 
their  breeding  places  or  so  treating  them  as  to  kill  the  larvse. 
In  many  sections  where  mosquitoes  have  been  a  plague, 
notably  in  New  Jersey,  large  areas  have  been  drained  or 
filled  at  public  expense  for  this  purpose.  Usually  many 
breeding  places  may  be  found  which  can  very  easily  be 
eradicated.  The  introduction  of  fish  will  aid  in  ridding 
ponds  of  mosquitoes.  Where  this  is  not  possible  breeding 
places  should  be  treated  with  low-grade  kerosene,  fuel-oil,  or 
some  larvacide,  which  will  destroy  the  larvse  and  pupae 
through  their  breathing  tubes.  Use  twelve  ounces  of  kero- 
sene to  fifteen  square  feet  of  surface,  or  one-half  cupful  for  a 
barrel.  Houses  should,  of  course,  be  screened  and  in  some 
places  it  will  be  necessary  to  screen  verandas  with  fine-meshed 
screening.  Rain-barrels,  cisterns  and  other  water  receptacles 
should  be  screened.  Possibly  the  best  repellent  for  mos- 
quitoes is  oil  of  citronella  and  for  their  bites  nothing  is  better 
than  ammonia.  Where  they  have  become  over-numerous 
in  a  room  they  may  be  destroyed  by  burning  pyrethrum 
powder  (page  178).  Rooms  and  cellars  may  also  be  fumi- 
gated with  "cuhcide"  (38)  or  by  burning  sulphur  (page  336). 

115.  Fleas.  The  fleas  (29,  51)  most  commonly  annoying 
in  houses  are  the  common  cat  or  dog  flea.*     The  adults  are 

*  Ctenocephalus  canis  Curt.     Order  Siphnnaptera,  see  page  38. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS 


187 


wingless  have  the  body  strongly  compressed  laterally,  are 
provided  with  sucking  mouth-parts,  and  have  strong  hmd 
legs  which  enable  them  to  jump  considerable  distances. 
The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  hair  of  the  dog  or  cat,  from 
which  they  become  scattered,  and  the  young  develop  m 
cracks  of  the  floor,  under  carpets,  in  rubbish,  etc.     In  such 


Fjg.  132.— Cat  and  dog  flea  {Ctenocephalus  canis).     (After  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.) 

J    orliiU-    p    mmith-Darts  of  same  from 
enlarged. 

situations  the  larv^  feed  on  either  animal  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter The  larvse  are  slender,  worm-like  creatures,  scarcely 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  are  quite  active,  and  become  grown 
in  about  two  weeks.  They  then  spin  delicate,  silken  co- 
coons, in  which  they  transform  to  pup^  and  from  which  the 
adults  emerge  in  a  few  days.  In  warm,  damp  weather  a 
whole  generation  may  develop  in  a  fortnight,  although  or- 


188  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

dinarily  about  a  month  is  required.  Often  when  a  house 
in  which  a  cat  or  dog  has  been  kept  is  closed  up  for  the  sum- 
mer, the  fleas  will  multiply  rapidly  and  the  house  will  be 
found  alive  with  them  when  opened. 

Where  cats  or  dogs  are  kept  they  should  be  provided 
with  a  rug  on  which  to  sleep  and  this  should  be  given  a  fre- 
quent shaking  and  brushing.  Dusting  the  hair  of  a  dog  or 
cat  copiously  with  pyrethrum  powder  over  a  paper  will  cause 
many  of  the  fleas  to  fall  off  partly  stupefied  and  they  may 
be  destroyed.  The  best  means  to  rid  these  animals  of  fleas 
is  to  dip  them  in  a  tepid  bath  containing  creolin  or  carbolic 
solution.  Where  houses  become  infested  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  gasoline  or  benzine  should  be  in- 
jected into  the  floor  cracks.  Badly  infested  houses  may  be 
rid  of  fleas  by  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  (see 
page  336). 

116.  Bedbugs.  Probably  no  other  insect  is  so  thoroughly 
detested  as  the  bedbug  *  (32)  by  the  good  housewife,  who 
ofttimes  considers  herself  disgraced  by  its  mere  presence. 
Such  a  feeling  is  hardly  warranted,  for  they  are  often  intro- 
duced by  servants  or  are  brought  in  after  traveling,  but 
failure  to  get  rid  of  them  as  soon  as  possible  certainly  is  dis- 
graceful. The  full-grown  adult  is  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  long  by  half  as  wide,  of  an  oval  shape,  reddish-brown  in 
color,  wingless,  and  has  a  very  characteristic,  disagreeable 
odor.  Bedbugs  are  mostly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and 
after  feeding  upon  the  sleeping  individual  will  again  conceal 
themselves  in  crevices.  Partial  relief  from  them  may  some- 
times be  secured  by  keeping  a  light  burning.  The  small 
whitish  eggs  are  laid  in  masses  in  the  hiding  places  and  from 
them  the  small  whitish  young  emerge  in  a  week  or  two.  The 
length  of  time  for  the  development  of  the  adult  depends 
*  Cimex  lectularius  Linn.     Family  Acanthiidce,  see  page  60. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         189 

upon  the  food  supply,  as  they  are  able  to  go  for  long  periods 
without  food. 


Q 


S    2 


sJ 


3  —  ca 


£  ^ 


3ja 

03  3 


The  best  remedy  under  ordinary  circumstances  is  gaso- 
line or  kerosene.     Every  crevice  in  and  about  beds,  and  in 


190  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

adjacent  woodwork  should  be  liberally  treated.  Another 
application  should  be  made  in  about  two  weeks.  Unless 
the  walls  and  woodwork  have  become  very  badly  infested, 
thorough  and  persistent  treatment  will  be  effective,  but  in 
such  a  case  the  building  should  be  fumigated  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  (see  page  336). 

117.  Horse  Bots.*  Horses  running  in  pasture  are  com- 
monly infected  with  bots.  The}^  are  the  maggots  of  a  large, 
brown,  hairy  fly,  looking  much  like  a  bee,  with  a  wing  ex- 
panse of  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  Horses  instinct- 
ively become  nervous  upon  the  approach  of  these  flies, 
which  lay  their  small  yellowish  eggs,  sometimes  called  "nits," 
on  the  hair  of  the  fore  legs,  shoulders  and  flanks.  When  the 
horse  licks  these  parts  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  little  maggots 
attach  themselves  to  the  tongue  and  then  work  their  way 
down  the  alimentary  canal  to  the  stomach.  Here  they 
attach  themselves  to  the  walls,  often  occurring  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  form  large  patches.  They  continue  growth  during 
the  winter  and  the  next  spring  they  pass  out  through  the  in- 
testines with  the  excrement  and  burrow  into  the  ground, 
where  the  pupal  stage  is  passed.  The  adult  flies  emerge 
a  month  or  so  later,  there  being  but  one  generation  a  year. 
The  exact  amount  of  damage  which  the  bots  do  is  a  matter 
of  some  dispute,  but  it  is  evident  that  when  present  in 
large  numbers  they  must  irritate  the  lining  of  the  stomach 
and  must  absorb  considerable  nutriment  both  from  the 
stomach  wall  and  the  food  in  it.  Cases  have  been  observed 
in  which  they  have  penetrated  the  wall  of  the  stomach 
and  caused  death. 

During  late  summer  horses  kept  in  pasture  should  be 
examined  every  two  weeks  and  the  eggs  destroyed  or  re- 
moved. This  may  be  effected  by  washing  the  eggs  with 
*  Gastrophilus  equi  Fab.     Family  (Estrid'je.     See  page  139. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS        191 

dilute  carbolic  acid,  one  part  to  thirty  of  water,  by  rubbing 
the  eggs  over  lightly  with  kerosene,  or  by  clipping  the  hair 
or  shaving  the  eggs  off  with  a  sharp  razor.     Farmers  some- 


FlG.  134. — Portion  of  stomach  wall  showing  points  of  attachment  of 
bots.     (After  Osborn,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

times  hang  a  piece  of  fraj^ed  rope  from  the  throat-latch  of  a 
horse  in  pasture,  and  claim  that  the  flies  will  deposit  most  of 
their  eggs  on  it,  and  thus  do  no  harm  to  the  horse.     If  there 
are  indications  of   the  bots  doing 
such   serious   injury  as   to  require 
internal    treatment   a   veterinarian 
should  be  consulted. 

118.  The  Sheep  Bot-fly  or  Head 
Maggot.*  The  sheep  bot-fly  looks 
something  like  an  overgrown  house 
fly,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  thorax  being  dull  yellow, 
covered  with  small  specks  so  as  to  give  it  a  brown  aj^pearance, 
*  CEstrus  ovis  Linn.     Family  (Estridw.     See  page  139. 


Tig.  135.— Horse  bot-fly. 


192 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


and  the  abdomen  is  velvety  dark  brown  variegated  with  straw 
color.  The  fly  has  no  mouth-parts  and  so  takes  no  food. 
The  female  lays  the  young  maggots  (the  eggs  having  been 
hatched  in  the  body  of  the  parent),  in  the  nostrils  of  the 
sheep.  The  attacks  of  the  flies  make  the  sheep  frantic  and 
they  will  lie  down  and  bury  their  noses  in  the  dust,  throw 
dust  in  the  air,  and  huddle  together  to  try  and  ward  off  the 
attack.  The  young  larva  works  its  way  upward  into  the 
frontal  sinuses,  the  cavities  between  the  plates  of  bone  over 

the  eyes.  It  requires 
about  ten  months  for 
the  larva  to  become 
mature,  when  it  crawls 
back  into  the  nose 
and  is  sneezed  out. 
Going  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  surface  of 
the  soil  it  transforms 
to  the  pupa,  from 
which  the  adult  fly 
emerges  in  from  four 
to  six  weeks.  When 
the  grubs  become 
numerous  in  the  frontal  sinuses  they  often  cause  very  serious 
injury,  animals  so  affected  losing  their  appetite,  becoming 
emaciated,  discharging  thick  mucus  from  the  nose,  etc. 

No  entirely  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  known. 
The  best  means  is  to  smear  coal-tar  on  the  sheep's  noses.  If 
one  has  but  a  few  sheep  this  can  be  done  now  and  then  by 
hand.  Otherwise,  place  logs  in  which  holes  are  bored  with 
a  two-inch  augur  here  and  there  in  the  pasture.  Keep  these 
holes  about  half  full  of  salt  and  the  edges  smeared  with  coal- 
tar,  so  that  it  will  get  on  the  sheep's  noses.     Plowing  a  deep 


Fig.  136. — Sheep  bot-fly  {(Eslrus  ovis). 
(After  Riley.) 

1,  2,  flies;    3,  pupa;   4,  full-grown  larva. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         193 

furrow  across  the  pasture  so  that  the  sheep  may  stick  their 
noses  in  the  dust  when  they  are  attacked  is  recommended. 
Inasmuch  as  the  flies  are  abroad  only  in  the  sunshine  and 
in  the  heat  of  the  day,  any  kind  of  cheap  shelter  which  will 
afford  shade  and  into  which  the  sheep  may  run  will  prove  a 
welcome  refuge  for  them  from  the  flies.  Four  posts  with 
any  sort  of  a  roof  and  bagging  hanging  loose  down  the  sides 
will  be  sufficient.  When  the  maggots  become  established 
in  the  head  there  is  practically  nothing  which  can  be  done 
to  remove  them  except  an  operation — trephining — which 
must  be  done  by  a  skillful  veterinary  surgeon  and  will  only 
be  practicable  for  valuable  breeding  stock. 

119.  The  Ox  Warble.*  The  ox  warble  (21),  also  known 
as  "bot-fly"  or  "heel-fly,"  is  the  cause  of  "grubby"  hides 
of  cattle  and  in  the  grazing  regions  of  the  West  and  South- 
west is  the  cause  of  considerable  loss  to  both  hides  and  beef. 
Cattle  allowed  to  run  in  pasture  for  the  summer  are  always 
more  or  less  affected  with  the  grubs,  particularly  if  the  owner 
is  not  careful  to  destroy  them.  The  holes  in  the  hides,  and 
the  loss  in  weight  and  quality,  make  the  warble  one  of  the 
worst  insect  pests  of  cattle. 

The  adult  fly  is  about  the  same  size  and  of  much  the  same 
appearance  as  the  honey-bee.  It  is  about  a  half  inch  long, 
blackish,  and  clothed  with  hairs.  The  edge  of  the  head  and 
thorax  and  the  base  of  the  abdomen  are  covered  with  whitish 
hairs.  The  upper  part  of  the  head  and  thorax  and  the 
middle  of  the  abdomen  and  legs  are  blackish-brown.  The 
tip  of  the  body  is  reddish-brown.  The  flies  lay  their  eggs 
on  cattle,  not  infrequently  on  the  flanks  and  elsewhere,  but 
mostly  just  above  the  hoof,  which  latter  habit  has  given 
them  the  name  "heel-fly."  The  presence  of  one  of  the  flies 
causes  intense  excitement  among  the  cattle,  often  stampeding 
*  Hypoderma  lineata  Villers.     Family  (Estridce,  see  page  139. 


194 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


them  through  shrubbery  or  water  to  escape.  As  the  fly 
causes  no  pain  it  is  evident  that  this  fright  is  instinctive. 
When  the  animal  hcks  the  parts  on  which  the  eggs  are  laid, 
the  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  larvae  are  taken  to  the  mouth, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  horse  bot.  They  then  penetrate  the 
walls  of  the  oesophagus  and  migrate  through  the  connective 
tissues  of  the  body  for  several  months,  working  their  way  to 

beneath  the  skin  on  the  neck 
and  then  backward  until  they 
become  lodged  beneath  the 
skin  in  the  region  of  the 
back.  The  larva  now  makes 
a  hole  through  the  skin  so  as 
to  secure  air  for  breathing. 
It  develops  rapidly,  subsist- 
ing on  pus  and  serum  which 
its  presence  induces,  and 
causes  a  characteristic  swell- 
ing or  tumor.  When  full 
grown  it  is  an  inch  or  more 
long  so  that  it  may  cause 
considerable  irritation.  It 
then  works  its  way  out 
through  the  hole  which  it 
had  made,  drops  to  the  ground,  which  it  may  enter,  or  it 
may  change  to  the  pupa  on  the  surface.  The  final  trans- 
formation to  the  adult  fly  takes  place  from  three  to  six 
weeks  later,  there  being  but  one  generation  a  year. 

Various  oils  and  repellent  substances  have  been  recom- 
mended for  smearing  on  cattle  to  prevent  the  attacks  of 
the  flies,  but  it  seems  that  there  is  no  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  their  efficacy,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  applications 
must  be  made  every  few  days,  so  that  such  treatment   is 


Fig.  137. — Ox  warble  (Hypoderma 
lineata),     female,    natural    size 
indicated  by  side  line.     (From 
"Insect  Life.") 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         195 

entirely  impracticable  for  cattle  in  a  large  pasture.  The 
best  means  of  control  is  to  examine  the  cattle  carefully  in 
the  winter  and  spring  and  to  remove  the  maggots  from  be- 
neath the  skin  as  soon  as  they  are  in  evidence.  This  can 
be  done  by  exerting  a  gentle  pressure  with  the  fingers  on 
either  side  of  the  hole  and  thus  squeezing  the  maggot  out. 
A  cheap  pair  of  tweezers  will  aid  in  removing  the  younger 


C^.(     'T^.^' 


YB^ 


Fig.  138. — Ox  warble  {Hypoderma  lineata).     (From  "Insect  Life.") 

a.  second  stag?  of  larva  from  back;  b  and  c,  enlargement  of  extremities;  d, 
ventral  view  of  third  stage  with  details  of  extremities  at  e  and  /;  g,  dorsal  view  of 
mature  larva  witli  enlargement  of  anal  spiracles  at  h;  i,  the  same,  lateral  view; 
natural  size  indicated  by  side  lines. 

ones.  Inject  a  few  drops  of  cresol  or  carbolic  solution  in 
the  wound  after  removing  the  maggot.  It  is  sometimes 
recommended  to  kill  the  maggots  by  applying  grease  and 
other  substances  which  will  stop  up  the  breathing  hole  and 
kill  them  beneath  the  hide,  but  this  is  liable  to  cause  festering. 

120.  The  Horn  Fly.*  The  little  horn  flies  (23),  which 
cluster  upon  the  horns  of  cattle,   are  among  their  most 

*  Hrcmatohia  serrata  Rob.-Desv.     Family  Muscidoe.     See  page  14L 


196 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


troublesome  enemies.  The  horn  fly  resembles  a  very  small 
house  fly,  but  like  the  stable  fly  (page  180),  it  has  piercing 
mouth-parts  which  enable  it  to  pierce  the  skin  and  suck  out 
the  blood,  which  forms  its  normal  food.  When  the  horn  flies 
assemble  in  large  numbers  on  the  shoulders  and  elsewhere 
out  of  reach  of  the  head  or  tail,  they  cause  great  annoyance, 


Fig.    139. — Horn-fly    (HcEmatobia    serrata).     Much    enlarged.     (After 
Marlatt,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  egg;   b,  larva;  c,  puparium;   d,  adult  in  resting  position. 

and  have  been  thought  to  reduce  the  milk  flow  materially 
and  in  many  cases  to  cause  loss  of  weight. 

The  flies  lay  their  eggs  upon  freshly  dropped  cow  dung. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a  day  and  the  little  white  maggots 
feed  in  the  dung  and  become  grown  in  a  week  or  ten  days. 
They  then  change  to  pupae  just  at  or  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  the  adult  flies  emerge  a  few  days  later,  the 
whole  life  cycle  requiring  about  two  weeks. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         197 

Various  proprietary  repellent  solutions  are  in  common  use 
for  protecting  cattle  from  flies.  The  principal  objection  to 
them  is  that  repeated  applications  are  necessary  to  be  ef- 
fectual. If  it  is  desired  to  use  such  sprays,  a  home-made 
solution  will  be  cheaper  and  equally  effective.  Use  either 
one  part  of  pine  tar  with  three  parts  of  crude  cottonseed  oil 
or  fish  oil,  or  three  parts  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  one  hun- 
dred parts  of  either  of  these  oils.  Cottonseed  oil  is  less 
offensive  than  fish  oil,  and  cheaper.  These  may  be  applied 
with  a  hand  atomizer  or  sponge,  but  an  atomizer  or  small 
spray  pump  will  use  less  material  and  apply  it  more  evenly. 
By  having  a  man  stand  on  either  side  of  the  door  to  spray 
the  cows  as  they  enter  the  barn,  dairy  cows  may  be  quickly 
treated  and  the  flies  kept  out  of  the  barn.  There  seems  to 
be  some  question,  however,  as  to  the  real  efficacy  of  these 
repellents,  and  whether  they  are  really  worth  the  cost. 
Such  experiments  as  have  been  carefully  conducted  are 
rather  inconclusive  (24)  on  this  point,  but  indicate  that 
whether  the  fly-sprays  are  profitable  or  not  remains  to  be 
determined.  Undoubtedly  they  afford  some  relief  for  a 
day  or  two. 

Preventive  measures  seem  more  promising.  If  the  de- 
velopment of  the  maggots  in  the  cow  manure  can  be  pre- 
vented, no  flies  will  occur.  In  small  pastures  where  the 
manure  is  often  dropped  in  particular  places,  it  is  entirely 
feasible  to  send  a  Ijoy  around  the  field  every  few  days  and 
let  him  spread  out  each  dropping  with  a  shovel,  so  that  it 
will  dry  out  quickly  in  the  sun.  This  is  more  necessary  in 
wet  weather.  At  the  barn,  sprinkle  lime  or  land  plaster 
over  the  manure  every  day  or  two,  which  will  aid  in  pre- 
venting the  development  of  the  maggots.  Probably  the 
borax  treatment  advised  for  the  house  fly  (page  178)  will 
be  found  even  more  elective. 


198 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


121.  Cattle  Lice.  Two  or  three  species  of  lice  commonly 
affect  neglected  cattle  and  one  inhabits  hogs.  Of  these  the 
first  three  belong  to  the  true  lice.*  The  most  common  is  the 
so-called  Short-nosed  Ox  Louse.]  It  is  a  bluish  or  dark  gray 
color,  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  the  general 
shape  shown  in  Fig.  140.  These  lice  frequent  the  neck  and 
shoulders  of  cattle,  which  sometimes  become  badly  rubbed 


Fig.  140. — Short-nosed  ox-louse  (Hcematopinus  eurysternus) .      (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  female;    6,  rostrum;    c,  ventral  surface  of  the  last  segments  of  male;   d,  same 
of  female;   e,  egg;  /,  surface  of  same  greatly  enlarged. 

by  their  efforts  to  be  rid  of  them.  The  eggs  are  laid  upon 
the  hair  near  the  skin,  and  the  young  resemble  the  adults 
in  both  structure  and  habits.  Tho  Lonj-nosed  Ox  Louse  |  is 
very  similar,  except  that  the  snout  is  more  prolonged,  but 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  so  injurious.  Another  somewhat 
larger  species  of  the  same  genus  affects  hogs.§     It  is  about 

*  Siphunculala,  see  page  37. 

t  Hcematopinus  eurysternus  Nitzsch. 

I  Hcematopinus  vituli  Linn. 

§  Hcematopinus  urius  Nitzsch. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         199 


They  are  more  common 


one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  or  a  gray  color,  the  body  broadly 
oval  and  the  head  narrow. 

The  Biting  Cattle  Louse  *  is  so  called  because  its 
mouth-parts  are  fitted  for  biting  instead  of  sucking,  it  be- 
longing to  the  same  order  as  the  common  hen  louse.  They 
are  recognized  as  "  little  red  lice  "  b}^  cattle  men,  in  con- 
trast to  the  bluish  sucking  species 
in  spring,  but  are  not  injurious 
unless  occurring  in  very  large 
numbers. 

Spraying  the  affected  animal 
with  kerosene  emulsion  diluted 
ten  times,  or  with  tobacco  ex- 
tract (Black-leaf  40,  1  part  to 
800),  or  rubbing  the  affected 
parts  with  sulphur,  lard  and 
sulphur,  or  lard  and  kerosene, 
will  destro}^  these  lice.  Usually 
these  parasites  are  introduced 
into  a  herd  on  animals  which 
have  been  neglected,  which  should 
be  treated  at  once  so  as  to  pre- 
vent further  spread.  Recent  ex- 
periments at  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion indicate  that  one  of  the  best  means  of  eradicating  these 
lice  is  by  the  use  of  blue  ointment.  On  cattle  the  hair  should 
be  clipped  close  to  the  skin  on  a  space  half  the  size  of  one's 
hand.  On  hogs  appl}^  about  two  square  inches,  using  only 
enough  to  smear  over  the  skin  and  rub  on  with  the  finger. 
Apply  the  ointment  in  the  crotches,  back  of  the  ears,  be- 
hind the  shoulders  or  any  place  where  the  animal  cannot  lick 
it.     The  ointment  is  a  mercury  preparation  which  can  be 

*  Trichodectes  scalaris  Nitzsch.     Order  M:.llophaga.     See  page  37. 


Fig.  141. — Long-no.sed  ox- 
louse  {Hcemalopinus  i^iluli.) 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

Female,   under  surface  of  last 
segments    of    abdomen    of    same, 
showing    brushlike    organs, 
larged. 


En- 


200 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


secured  cheaply  at  any  drug  store.  Its  exact  effect  on  the 
parasites  is  not  known,  but  it  has  proven  effective  in  ridding 
animals  of  them  and  when  used  as  directed  there  have  been 
absolutely  no  symptoms  of  any  injury  to  the  animals. 

122.  Horse  Flies.* 
The  large  black  horse 
flies  or  gad-flies  (48) 
are  well-known  pests 
of  both  horses  and 
cattle,  which  they 
torture  with  their 
bites.  Only  the  fe- 
males, having  piercing 
mouth-parts,  are 
bloodsuckers,  the 
males  feeding  on  the 
pollen  of  flowers.  The 
large  Black  Horse  Fly\ 
is  about  one  inch  long 
and  has  a  wing  expanse 
of  two  inche?.  It  has 
a  short  broad  head, 
large  eyes,  a  thick 
body,  a  short  oval 
abdomen  and  large 
powerful  wings,  which  enable  it  to  keep  up  with  the  swiftest 
horse.  Particularly  along  shady  roads  in  woodlands  these 
flies  are  often  so  abundant  as  to  make  driving  difficult. 
The  smaller  Greenheads,X  so  called  from  their  large  green 
eyes,  are  more  common  near  the  water  and  are  well  known 

*  Family  Tabanidce.     See  page  136. 
t  Tabanus  atratus  Fab. 
X  Tabanus  lineola  Fab. 


Fig.  142.— The  biting  cattle-louse  {Tri- 
chodedcs  scalaris),  enlarged.  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         201 


to  every  bo}^  who  has  been  swimming.  Not  only  are  the 
attacks  of  these  flies  annoying  to  animals,  but  it  is  quite 
probable  that  such  diseases  as  anthrax  may  be  carried  by 
blood-sucking  flies  from  infected  to  healthy  animals. 

The  larviE  are  long,  pointed  maggots,  most  of  them  living 
in  water  or  in  swampy  places  or  along  the  edges  of  streams 


Fig.  143. — The  black  gadfly  {Tabanus  alratus).     (After  Garman.) 
a,  Male,  b,  larva — both  twice  natural  size. 

or  ponds,  and  are  carnivorous.  In  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try w^here  there  are  large  swamp  areas,  as  along  the  Gulf 
Coast,  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  these  flies  appear  in  such 
numbers  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  keep  cattle  at  certain 
seasons. 

Nets  or  light  covers  and  ear-nets  will  be  appreciated  by 


202 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


horses  where  these  flies  are  abundant.  Various  repulsive 
ointments  have  been  suggested,  but  are  of  doubtful  value. 
In  sections  where  the  flies  are  particularly  troublesome,  the 
draining  of  marshy  lands  may  remove  their  breeding  places 
as  well  as  those  of  mosquitoes. 

123.  The  Sheep  Tick.*  The  sheep  tick  is  one  of  the  best- 
known  pests  of  the  sheep.  It  is  not  really  a  tick,  but  a  wing- 
less fly.     It  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  when  grown, 

and  of  a  reddish-brown  color. 
The  head  is  small  and  sunken 
into  the  thorax.  The  middle  of  the 
thorax  is  rather  slender  and  the 
abdomen  is  broad.  This  species 
is  distributed  over  the  world  and 
lives  only  on  sheep.  These  insects 
are  peculiar  in  that  the  eggs  hatch 
and  the  larvae  develop  within  the 
body  of  the  female,  which  gives 
birth  to  pupae,  from  which  the 
adults  soon  emerge.  When  the 
old  sheep  are  sheared  the  ticks 
usually  migrate  to  the  unsheared 
lambs.  They  may  cause  con- 
siderable damage  to  sheep  if  abundant,  which  is  often  indi- 
cated by  the  lack  of  growth  and  poor  condition,  and  when 
they  mass  on  lambs  their  injury  is  often  very  serious. 

The  only  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  to  dip  the 
sheep  just  before  shearing  and  again  in  the  fall  before  going 
into  winter  quarters.  Any  of  the  cresol  or  creosote  dips, 
lime-and-sulphur,  or  the  tobacco  dips,  whose  labels  state 
that  they  are  approved  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, may  be  used  as  directed  by  the  manufacturer. 
*  Melophagus  ovinus  Linn.     Family  Hippoboscidce.     See  page  139. 


Fig.  144. — The  sheep  tick. 
(Ky.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 
Greatly  enlarged. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS         203 

Sheep  should  sta}'  in  the  dip  at  least  two  minutes,  so  as  to 
get  thoroughly  wet,  and  the  head  should  be  ducked  under. 
Sheep  introduced  into  the  flock  should  be  dipped  so  as  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  ticks  and  other  insect  pests. 
Spraying  the  pens  or  enclosures  with  zenoleum,  cresol,  or 
any  similar  creosote  preparation,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion, 
will  kill  all  wandering  ticks  and  scab  mites  and  is,  therefore, 
a  good  practice. 

124.  The  Sheep  Scab  Mite.*  The  little  mites  (35,  49) 
which  cause  sheep  scab  are  not  true  insects,  but  belong  to 
the  same  class  as  spiders  and  all  true  mites.  However,  they 
are  commonly  considered  among  the  insect  parasites  of  sheep, 
of  which  they  are  probably  the  most  important.  The  mite 
is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  recognizable  without  a  magnify- 
ing glass,  the  females  being  about  one-fortieth  of  an  inch 
long  and  the  males  about  one-sixtieth  or  about  the  size 
of  this  period  (.).  They  are  light  gray  in  color  and  resemble 
minute  spiders  in  shape,  and  have  four  pairs  of  legs,  to  the 
third  pair  of  which  are  attached  some  long  thread-like 
appendages.  A  female  lays  from  10  to  20  eggs  which  hatch 
in  from  four  to  ten  days.  A  new  generation  appears  about 
every  two  weeks  so  that  the  pest  increases  with  enormous 
rapidity  and  a  sheep  will  soon  become  badly  infested.  Sheep 
are  the  only  animals  affected. 

The  first  symptom  which  will  indicate  the  need  of  exam- 
ination for  scab  mites,  is  the  rubbing  of  the  back,  sides,  or 
tail  of  the  sheep  against  some  object,  or  its  biting  at  these 
parts,  due  to  the  itching  caused  by  the  mites.  The  infected 
spot  may  at  first  be  very  small,  so  as  almost  to  escape  atten- 
tion, consisting  first  of  a  yellowish,  dandruff-like  substance, 
but  if  it  is  scratched  the  sheep  will  respond  with  a  nibbling 
motion  of  the  mouth.  Large  patches  are  soon  formed  if  the 
*  Psoroptes  communis  Furst.     Class  Arachnida.     See  page  21. 


204 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


animal  is  not  treated.  The  innumerable  little  mites  sucking 
from  the  skin  cause  an  intense  irritation  and  a  consequent 
secretion  of  a  large  amount  of  serum.  This  forms  at  first  a 
dandruff  and  later  a  thick  scab.  As  this  goes  on  the  wool 
drops  off,  the  sheep  loses  flesh,  and  presents  a  very  unkempt 
appearance.  If  badly  infected  and  untreated,  sheep  may 
be  killed  by  the  injury.     The  only  sure  diagnosis  of  the 


i,' ,. 


^U 


Fig.  145. — The  sheep  scab  mite  {Psoroples  ovis).      (After  Good,  Ky. 

Agr.  Exp.  Sta.) 

a,  female;   h,  male — both  very  greatly  enlarged. 


scab  is  to  find  the  mites.  This  can  be  done  by  placing  some 
of  the  suspected  scabby  material  on  a  black  background  in 
a  warm  place,  when  the  small  mites  may  be  detected  crawl- 
ing around,  the  more  readily  by  the  aid  of  a  magnifier.  The 
scab  mites  are  spread  from  one  animal  to  another  by  con- 
tact and  by  the  sheep  coming  in  contact  with  sides  of  cars, 
fences,  or  other  objects  against  which  scabby  sheep  have 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS 


205 


rubbed.  The  most  common  source  of  infection  is  securing 
sheep  from  stock  yards.  It  is  well,  therefore,  always  to  dip 
sheep  as  soon  as  received. 

The  same  dips  as  recommended  for  the  sheep  ticks  will  be 
satisfactory  if  used  according  to  directions,  and  one  dipping 
will  kill  both,  as  well  as  sheep  lice.  The  tobacco  dip  should 
contain  at  least  seven   one-hundredths   of   1  per  cent   of 


Fig.  146. — The  sheep  in  the  middle  of  the  group  is  affected  with  a 
shghtly  advanced  case  of  sheep  scab,  as  is  seen  by  the  tufted  wool 
and  bare  spots  on  fore  flank  and  crops.  The  other  two  sheep 
represent  advanced  stages  of  the  disease.     (Ky.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

nicotine  when  used.  A  nicotine-and-sulphur  dip  containing 
not  less  than  5  100  of  1  per  cent  nicotine  and  2  per  cent 
sulphur  has  been  proven  satisfactory  in  extensive  tests. 
The  dipping  should  be  repeated  in  ten  or  twelve  days  to 
kill  the  mites  hatched  since  the  first  dipping.  It  is  best  to 
have  the  dip  warm,  about  100  to  105°  Fahrenheit.  If 
scabby  sheep  are  taken  from  buildings,  the  buildings  should 
be  disinfected  before  returning  healthy  sheep  to  them.     Pas- 


206 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


tures  kept  free  from  sheep  and  exposed  to  sunlight  do  not 
remain  infectious  for  more  than  thirty  to  sixty  days. 

125.  Poultry  Lice.  Several  species  of  biting-lice  are 
common  upon  poultry,  but  the  most  common  is  the  Hen- 
louse  *  (25).  It  is  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  pale 
dull  yellow  with  darker  marks  on  each  side  of  the  body, 
though  often  reddish  or  pinkish  in  color  after  feeding.  The 
small  eggs  or  "nits"  are  attached 
to  the  feathers  near  the  quill  and 
may  hatch  in  about  eight  days,  or 
under  unfavorable  conditions,  may 
lie  dormant  for  several  months.  The 
young  lice  are  much  the  same  as 
when  full  grown.  All  of  these  biting 
lice  bite  off  the  scales  of  the  skin 
and  the  edges  of  the  feathers,  but 
do  not  suck  the  blood.  The  claws 
of  their  feet  are  sometimes  very 
sharp,  however,  and  by  continual 
scratching  may  draw  blood  which 
is  readily  eaten  by  the  lice  and 
accounts  for  their  occasional  reddish 
color.  They  are  quite  hardy  and  may 
live  a  long  time  without  food.  They 
spread  rapidly  from  one  hen  to 
another  on  the  roosts,  from  the  nests,  and  from  a  hen  to  her 
chicks,  a  setting  hen  in  a  foul  nest  furnishing  them  ideal  food. 
Little  chicks  are  most  susceptible  and  may  die  from  their 
attacks.  The  species  on  pigeons  and  geese  are  different, 
as  the  species  of  bird  lice  usually  have  but  one  host. 

To  kill  the  lice  on  young  chicks  rub  a  pinch  of  lard  under 
the  wings  and  a  little  on  top  of  the  head.     A  dust  made  of 
*  Menopon  pallidum  Nitzsch.     Order  Mallophaga,  see  page  37. 


Fig.  147. — The  common 
hen -louse  {Menopon 
pallidum ).  Greatly 
enlarged.  (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS        207 

ten  pounds  of  sulphur  to  a  half  bushel  of  air  slaked  lime, 
mixed  together,  should  be  used  for  dusting  the  hens  and 
nests  and  be  mixed  with  the  dust  bath.  A  thorough  spray- 
ing of  the  house  with  kerosene  emulsion  as  advised  for  mites 
will  also  be  valuable.  In  a  recent  circular  Dr.  C.  A.  Lueder 
(50)  states  that  the  lice  may  be  killed  by  treatment  with 
blue  ointment  according  to  the  following  directions:  "Re- 
move some  feathers  from  the  back  part  of  the  body  near  the 
vent.  Take  a  pinch  of  ointment  a  little  larger  than  a  pea 
and  thoroughly'  rub  a  portion  of  it  where  the  feathers  were 
removed.  Distribute  tho  balance  evenly  on  the  shanks 
of  the  legs  and  the  lice  will  disappear.  Blue  ointment  should 
be  applied  during  the  month  of  December  and  again  about 
one  month  before  brooding .  season.  Blue  ointment  is  a 
medical  preparation  containing  mercur}^,  which  is  poisonous 
when  taken  into  the  system  by  the  mouth  or  absorbed  through 
the  skin  in  large  quantities.  Young  animals  are  very  suscept- 
ible to  mercury,  therefore  none  should  be  used  on  young 
chickens.  Healthy  fowls  six  months  old  may  be  treated." 
126.  Poultry  Mites.  The  Chicken  Mite*  (25)  is  the  most 
common  mite  affecting  poultry  and  belongs  to  the  same  order 
of  mites  as  that  causing  the  sheep  scab  (p.  203).  It  is  an 
oval,  flattened  mite  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  of 
a  pale  gray  color  with  darker  spots,  unless  it  has  been  feed- 
ing, when  it  is  more  or  less  reddish  with  blood.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  cracks  and  crevices  where  there  is  some  manure  or 
filth  and  the  young  mites  feed  largely,  if  not  entirely,  on 
filth.  They  become  grown  in  about  ten  days  and,  therefore, 
increase  rapidly.  The  mites  remain  on  the  poultry  only 
while  feeding  and  then  retire  into  crevices,  being  most  active 
at  night.  Dark,  damp  houses  are  much  worse  infested  than 
those  with  good  ventilation  and  plenty  of  sunlight. 

*  Dermanyssus  gallinm  Redi.     Class  Arachnida,  see  page  21. 


208 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  walls  and  roof  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  brushed 
clean  of  all  dust  and  filth.  The  litter  and  nests  should  be 
kept  clean  and  fresh.  Clean  the  house,  scraping  the  roosts, 
dropping  boards  and  floors  clean,  and  then  spray  with  10 
per  cent  kerosene  emulsion,  lime-sulphur  mixture  or  with  a 
whitewash  made  as  follows:  Take  six  pounds  of  powdered 
sulphur  and  eight  pounds  of  lump  lime   and  place  in  a 


Fig.   148. — The  chicken  mite   {Dermanyssus  gallince).     (U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.) 

a,  adult;  6,  tarsus;  c,  mouth-parts;  d  and  e,  young — all  enlarged. 


wooden  tub.  Add  enough  boiling  water  to  slake  and  keep 
the  lime  from  burning  and  stir  continually  until  cool. 
Add  more  boiling  water  to  make  a  whitewash.  To  every 
gallon  of  whitewash  add  one  pound  of  table  salt  and  four 
ounces  of  creohn.  Another  apphcation  should  be  made  in 
four  or  five  days  to  kill  any  mites  which  may  hatch. 

Another  common  mite  is  the  one  which  causes  "scaly 
leg"  and  which  attacks  the  feet,  legs,  comb  and  neck  of 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS        209 

poultr}^,  and  is  often  known  as  the  Itch  Mite.     This  is  a 
much  smaller  species,  which  burrows  beneath  the  skin  and . 
causes  scales  as  does  the  sheep  scab  mite  (p.  203).      Under 
these  scales  the  mites  live  and  multiply. 

Wash  the  legs  of  affected  fowls  with  warm  soapsuds  for 
twenty  minutes  so  as  to  soften  the  scales  so  that  they  may 
be  gently  rubbed  off  without  bleeding.  Then  apply  lard 
and  kerosene,  sulphur  ointment,  or  an  ointment  made  of 
naphthalene  crystals  (moth  balls),  powdered  and  mixed 
with  nine  parts  of  lard.  An  application  of  coal  tar  to  the 
scales  on  the  legs  has  caused  them  to  drop  off  without  bleed- 
ing and  seems  to  be  effective.  Blue  ointment  has  also 
been  used  as  described  for  hen  lice  (p.  206),  with  excellent 
effect. 

127.  The  Cattle  Tick.*  The  cattle  tick  (22)  is  best 
known  as  being  the  carrier  of  Texas  or  tick  fever.  This 
disease  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  the  cattle  industry  in 
the  South  and,  therefore,  to  a  better  general  agriculture. 
The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (22)  states  "that  the 
Texas-fever  tick  is  responsible  for  about  $40,000,000  of  loss 
annually  to  the  people  of  the  infested  country,  and  that  it 
lowers  the  assets  of  the  South  by  an  additional  $23,500,000." 
It  is  confined  to  the  Southern  States,  and  as  shown  in 
Fig.  150,  its  range  has  been  materially  restricted  by  an 
active  campaign  carried  on  by  the  Federal  and  State  Gov- 
ernments for  its  eradication. 

The  fully  grown  adult  ticks  may  be  a  half  inch  long  and 
are  oval  in  shape.  The  head  is  much  smaller  than  that  of 
other  ticks  found  on  cattle,  and  is  reddish-brown  or  chest- 
nut in  color.  The  body  color  varies  from  dull  j^ellow  to  an 
olive  brown;  often  being  mottled  with  yellow  or  brown  or 
streaked  with  wavy  lines  of  these  colors.     There  is  a  groove 

*  Margaropus  annulatus  Say.     Class  Arachnida,  see  page  21. 


210 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


on  either  side  at  the  front  and  three  grooves  toward  the  rear 
of  the  body. 

The  adult  female  when  gorged  with  blood  and  eggs,  drops 


4 


^ 


10. 


Fig.  149. — The  cattle  tick  {Margaropus  annulatus).     (TJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

3,  mature  female  with  eggs;  4,  hide  covered  with  ticks;  ,5,  blood  cells  con- 
taining Texas  fever  protozoa;  10,  various  stages  of  cattle  ticks — natural  size,  except 
5,  which  is  enlarged  1000  times. 

to  the  ground  and  there  lays  her  eggs  to  the  number  of  1500 
to  3000.  From  these  light-brown  eggs  small  larvae  or  seed 
ticks  hatch  in  from  two  to  six  weeks,  depending  on  tempera- 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS        211 


212  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

ture  and  moisture  conditions.  The  young  seed  ticks  crawl 
around  on  grass,  weeds,  etc.,  waiting  for  a  chance  to  attach 
themselves  to  an  animal;  failing  in  which  they  die.  They 
are,  however,  exceedingly  resistant  and  may  live  for  three 
or  four  months  in  summer  or  from  September  to  April  in  an 
open  winter.  When  cattle  are  found  they  attach  them- 
selves to  the  soft  skin  inside  the  thighs  or  flanks,  and  on 
other  tender  and  protected  parts  of  the  body.  They  obtain 
their  nourishment  by  sucking  the  blood  and  though  so  small 
as  to  be  scarcely  visible,  may  transmit  the  fever  at  this  stage. 
The  complete  life  cycle  requires  from  six  to  ten  weeks  in 
warm  weather  and  much  longer  during  the  cold  seasons. 
The  fever  is  caused  by  a  small  protozoan  organism  which 
lives  in  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  the  affected  animal, 
breaking  them  down  and  causing  a  high  fever.  These  mi- 
croscopic organisms  are  transmitted  by  the  female  ticks 
through  their  eggs  to  the  young  ticks,  which  then  infect  the 
cattle  to  which  they  become  attached. 

The  ticks  may  be  eradicated  (see  36),  either  from  the 
pastures  or  from  the  cattle.  Possibly  the  greatest  advances 
in  tick-eradication  have  been  made  in  recent  years  by  means 
of  cleaning  the  pastures  of  them.  Pastures  may  be  freed  by 
excluding  all  cattle,  horses,  and  mules  until  the  young  ticks 
have  died  of  starvation,  or  the  animals  may  be  left  on  the 
pasture  and  then  treated  at  regular  intervals  so  as  to  de- 
stroy the  ticks  and  thus  prevent  the  engorged  females  from 
dropping  to  the  ground  and  reinfesting  the  pastures.  Ticks 
which  get  on  the  animals  will  be  destroyed  by  the  treatment 
and  those  which  fail  to  do  so  will  die  in  the  pasture.  On  the 
other  hand,  animals  may  be  freed  from  ticks  by  treating 
them  with  a  substance  which  will  destroy  the  ticks  or  they 
may  be  rotated  on  fields  free  from  ticks  until  all  the  ticks 
have  dropped.     The  methods  of  rotating  pastures  and  the 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  ANIMALS        213 

time  for  starving  out  the  young  ticks  in  different  latitudes 
and  at  different  seasons  have  been  quite  carefully  deter- 
mined, so  that  it  is  possible  to  proceed  to  eradicate  the  ticks 
from  large  areas  at  very  small  cost  (see  36).  For  destroy- 
ing the  ticks  the  cattle  are  washed,  sprayed  or  dipped  in 
crude  oil  emulsion  or  arsenical  dip.  Dipping  is  much  the 
most  satisfactory  and  is  the  method  usually  adopted  for 
herds  of  any  size.  The  crude  oil  emulsion  is  made  like  kero  - 
sene  emulsion,  using  one  piund  of  hard  soap,  one  gallon  of 
soft  water  and  four  gallons  of  crude  Beaumont  petroleum  for 
making  the  stock  solution  and  then  diluting  it  to  make  an 
emulsion  containing  20  or  25  per  cent  of  oil.  The  arsenical 
dip  is  made  by  the  following  formula: 

Sodium  carbonate  (sal  soda) 24  pounds 

Arsenic  trioxide  (white  arsenic) ....   8      " 

Pine  tar 1  gallon 

Water  sufficient  to  make  500  gallons. 

For  further  necessary  details  of  dipping  see  reference  36 
(p.  340) 


CHAPTER  XV 

INSECTS    AFFECTING    HOUSEHOLD    GOODS    AND 
STORED    FOOD    PRODUCTS 

128.  Cockroaches  (31).*  Roaches  are  undoubtedly 
among  the  most  offensive  of  all  household  pests  and  are  usu- 
ally present  only  in  old  houses  or  where  cleanliness  has  been 
neglected.  In  restaurants,  boarding  houses  and  on  ship- 
board they  often  become  very  serious  pests.     They  are  so 


Fig.  151. — The  German  roach  {Blatella  germanica).     (From  Riley.) 

a,  first  stage;  b,  second  stage;  c,  third  stage;  d,  fourth  stage;  e,  adult;  /,  adult 
female  with  egg  case;  g,  egg  case,  enlarged;  h,  adult  with  wings  spread.  All  natural 
size  except  g. 


well  known  as  hardly  to  need  description,  but  there  are 
three  species  which  may  be  distinguished.  The  German 
Roach  or  Croton  Bug  f  is  so-called  because  it  was  imported 
into  New  York  City  about  the  time  of  the  installation  of 
the  Croton  water  system  and,  as  the  roaches  crawl  through 
the  holes  made  in  floors  for  water  pipes,  they  spread  more 
*  Family  Blattidce,  see  page  52.  f  Ectobia  germanica  Linn. 

214 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        215 

rapidl}'  and  were  also  often  known  as  "water-bugs."  This 
species  is  a  light-brown  color  with  dark,  brownish-black 
markings  as  shown  in  Fig.  157,  and  is  somewhat  less  than 
an  inch  long  when  full  grown.  The  Oriental  Roach  *  is  a 
black  species,  an  inch  or  more  long.  The  female  has  only 
rudiments  of  wings  and  the  wings  of  the  male  extend  from 
one-half  to  three-quarters  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  The 
American  Cockroach  f  is  a  native  species,  about  one  and  one- 
half  inches  long.  It  is  reddish-brown  and  the  wings  extend 
beyond  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  Australian  Roach  | 
is  much  like  the  last  species,  but  smaller,  and  has  a  l^righter 
and  better  defined  band  of  yellow  on  the  prothorax,  and  a 
3'ellow  dash  on  the  sides  of  the  upper  wings.  It  is  the  most 
abundant  species  in  Florida  and  some  of  the  Southern 
States. 

Roaches  are  fond  of  warm  places  and,  therefore,  frequent 
kitchens  and  pantries.  They  are  largely  nocturnal  in  habits 
and  hide  in  cracks,  back  of  wainscoting,  etc.,  in  the  day. 
They  feed  on  all  sorts  of  materials,  attacking  all  kinds  of 
food  products,  and  often  do  serious  damage  to  bookbindings. 
Otherwise,  the  real  damage  they  do  is  not  so  serious  as  the 
disagreeable  roachy  odor  they  leave  and  the  presence  of  their 
excrement  and  cast  skins  wherever  the}'  have  l^een. 

''One  of  the  most  effective  simple  means  of  ridding 
premises  of  roaches  is  dusting  with  commercial  sodium  fluorid, 
either  pure  or  diluted  one-half  with  some  inert  substance 
such  ^s  powdered  gypsum  or  flour.  With  the  use  of  some 
dust  gun  or  l)lower  the  sodium  fluoric!  can  be  thoroughly 
dusted  over  the  shelves,  tables,  floors  and  runways  and  hid- 
ing places  of  the  roaches." — jNIarlatt  (31). 

*  Periplaneta  orientalis  Linn, 
t  Periplaneta  americana  Linn 
t  Periplaneta  australasice. 


216  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Equal  parts  of  chocolate  and  borax  scattered  in  the 
haunts  of  the  roaches  is  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  best  means  of 
destroying  them.  Badly  infested  buildings  should  be  fumi 
gated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  (see  p.  336).  Much  may 
be  done  by  a  thorough  cleaning  of  the  premises  and  then  stop 
ping  up  all  cracks  and  crevices  which  furnish  them  shelter. 
Rooms  may  also  be  fumigated  bj^  burning  pj'^rethrum  powder 
powder  as  suggested  for  flies  and  mosquitoes  (p.  178).  An 
ingenious  method  of  destroying  roaches  used  in  Australia 
is  by  placing  a  saucer  of  flour  3  or  4  parts,  and  plaster  of 
Paris,  1  part,  where  the  roaches  may  feed  on  it  and  near  by 
a  saucer  of  water,  both  being  supplied  with  bridges  of  card- 
board or  sticks  to  give  easy  access.  The  roaches  feed  on  the 
mixture  and  when  they  become  thirsty  and  drink  the  plas- 
ter sets  in  the  intestines  and  causes  death.  Phosphorus 
paste,  obtainable  at  drug  stores,  if  spread  thinly  on  bits  of 
card  or  paper  and  placed  in  the  runways  of  the  roaches  will 
destroy  many  of  them,  but  should  not  be  left  where  domestic 
animals  or  children  may  be  affected. 

129.  House  Ants  *  (33).  Several  species  of  ants  are 
common  household  pests,  where  they  are  usually  more  of  a 
nuisance  than  the  cause  of  much  real  damage.  They  are 
all  social  species  with  the  general  habits  described  on 
page  152. 

The  Little  Red  Ant  f  is  the  most  common  species  and  is 
practically  cosmopolitan  in  its  distribution.  It  very  com- 
monly makes  its  nests  in  the  walls  of  houses  or  beneath  the 
floors  where  they  are  difficult  to  eradicate.  Owing  to  its 
small  size,  being  only  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  it 
is  able  to  go  through  very  small  openings,  but  only  by  fol- 
lowing the  workers  may  the  nests  be  located  and  if  perma- 
nent relief  is  to  be  secured  the  nests  must  be  destroyed. 

*  Family  FormicidoE,  see  page  152.     f  Monomorium  pharaonis  Linn. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        217 

The  Little  Black  Ant  *  is  3/16  of  an  inch  long.  It  very 
frequently  occurs  indoors,  where  it  often  is  as  troublesome 
as  the  last  species,  but  it  ordinarily  makes  its  nests  under 
stones  in  the  yard  or  in  the  field.  It  may  be  recognized 
by  the  little  pyramids  of  fine  grains  of  soil  which  surround 
its  entrances.  By  tracing  the  ants  to  the  outdoor  col- 
onies they  may  be  readily  destroyed. 

Another  much  larger  species  which  sometimes  invades 
the  house  is  the  Black  Pavement  Ant,ii  a  species  quite  com- 


FiG.    152. — The   little  red  ant  {Monomorium   -pharaonis) .     Enlarged. 

(From  Riley.) 

a,  female;  6,  worker. 

mon  in  Eastern  cities.  These  ants  are  about  one-half  inch 
long  and  commonly  make  their  nests  under  sidewalk  pave- 
ments and  stones  where  they  are  hard  to  reach. 

In  recent  years  the  Argentine  Ant  X  has  been  introduced 
into  Louisiana  and  has  spread  to  parts  of  Mississippi,  Ala- 
bama, Texas  and  California.  It  threatens  to  become  one  of 
our  w^orst  insect  pests  over  a  large  section  of  the  country,  for 

*Monomorium  minimum  Buckley. 
t  Tetramorium  coespitum  Linn. 
%  Iridom-yrmex  humilis  Mayr. 


21S 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


although  it  is  most  troublesome  in  the  house  it  attacks  vari- 
ous crops.  It  is  a  small  species,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  of  a  uniform  brown  color.  The  nests  are  built  beneath 
and  in  the  walls  of  houses,  under  stones,  in  hollow  trees,  and 


Fig.    153. — The    little    black    ant    (Monomorium    minutum).     (After 
Marlatt,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  female;  b,  same  with  wings;    c,  male;    d,  workers;    e,  pupa;   /,  larva;    g,  egg 
of  worker — all  enlarged. 

in  various  other  places.  These  ants  occur  in  enormous  num- 
bers and  swarm  into  houses  and  over  everything.  They  are 
not  only  practically  omnivorous,  but  do  not  hesitate  to 
attack  a  person,  and  although  their  bite  is  not  severe,  scores 
of  them  soon  make  themselves  decidedly  disagreeable  and 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD   GOODS        219 

may  be  positively  dangerous  to  infants.  Wherever  this  pest 
appears  it  should  be  vigorously  combated. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  controlling  the  last  species, 
which  should  be  equally  effective  for  others,  is  by  means  of  a 
poisoned  syrup.  Dissolve  125  grains  of  arsenate  of  soda 
in  a  little  water  and  add  it  to  a  syrup  made  of  one  pound 
of  sugar  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water.  After  boiling  the 
solution  saturate  a  sponge  with  it  and  place  it  in  a  glass 
jar  with  a  perforated  cover.  This  enables  the  ants  to  reach 
it,  but  it  is  not  open  to  animals  or  children.  The  ants  will 
enter  the  jar  and  feed  on  the  syrup  and  even  carry  it  to 
their  nests. 

A  method  of  destroying  colonies  of  ants  in  their  nests  is 
to  saturate  the  upper  surface  of  the  nest  with  a  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  made  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  a 
gallon  of  water,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  effective  against 
the  Argentine  ant.  Injecting  carbon  bisulphide  into  the 
nests  is  even  more  effective  where  the  nests  can  be  found 
and  it  can  be  used.  In  many  cases  kerosene,  crude  petro- 
leum or  boiling  hot  water  poured  on  the  nest  will  destroy  the 
colony.  A  favorite  way  of  ridding  pantries  of  ants  is  to 
trap  them  on  a  sponge  saturated  with  syrup  or  sugar  water. 
The  ants  will  swarm  through  it,  and  when  it  is  well  covered 
drop  the  sponge  into  boiling  water;  then  wash  it  thoroughly 
of  dead  ants  and  repeat.  Where  this  is  kept  up,  they  will 
soon  leave.  To  prevent  ants  from  crawling  up  table  legs  and 
into  refrigerators,  place  the  legs  in  small  dishes  of  kerosene, 
being  sure  that  the  article  does  not  touch  anything  else. 
Corrosive  sublimate  seems  to  be  very  offensive  to  ants  and 
throughout  the  South  "ant-tape"  is  sold,  which  is  placed 
around  the  legs  of  tables  or  around  anything  to  be  protected 
from  ants.  It  is  merely  tape  soaked  in  a  saturated  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate.     It  may  be  made  by  heating  an 


220 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


excess  of  crystals  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  water  in  a  granite 
or  porcelain  vessel  (not  iron),  then  cooling  and  filtering 
through  cotton.  Soak  cotton  tape  or  heavy  cotton  string 
in  this  for  several  hours  and  then  dry.  It  must  not  come  in 
contact  with  any  iron,  tin  or  aluminum.  Corrosive  subli- 
mate is  poison  and  should  be  handled  with  care.  Naphtha- 
lene, gum  camphor,  carbolic  acid,  and  gasoline  are  also  said 
to  be  objectionable  to  ants  and  when  sprinkled  about  their 
haunts  will  help  drive  them  away. 

130.  The  Clothes  Moths.     The  little  yellowish  moths 
which  sometimes  flit  about  a  light  at  night  will  quickly  set 


Fig,   154. — The  clothes  moth  {Tinea  pelKonella) .     Enlarged.     (From 

Riley). 

Above,  adult;   at  right,  larva;  at  left,  larva  in  case. 


the  good  housekeeper  to  looking  over  her  furs  and  woolen 
clothing  for  the  presence  of  clothes  moths  (30) .  The  moths 
themselves  are  entirely  harmless,  but  she  has  learned  from 
experience  that  where  they  occur  some  injury  is  probably 
being  done,  and  that  if  they  are  not  destroyed,  they  will  give 
rise  to  further  trouble.  Other  moths  are  frequently  con- 
fused with  clothes  moths  but  usually  the  latter  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  hind  wings, 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD   GOODS        221 

characteristic  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong.  The 
most  common  species  is  the  Case-making  Clothes  Moth,* 
whose  larva  constructs  a  portable  case  for  its  protection. 
The  adult  moth  expands  about  half  an  inch,  its  head  and 
fore  wings  are  grayish-yellow,  with  darker  spots  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  hind  wings  are  white  or  grayish.  The  larva  is  a 
dull  white  caterpillar  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long 
when  grown,  and  lives  within  a  tube-like  case  made  from  the 
material  on  which  it  feeds,  and  lined  with  silk.  The  larvae 
feed  on  woolens,  carpets,  furs,  feathers,  etc.  There  is  but 
one  generation  a  year,  the  moths  appearing  in  July  and 
August.  The  Webbing  or  Southern  Clothes  Moth  f  is  the 
more  common  species  in  the  latitude  of  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  southward.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  preceding  species, 
but  the  fore  wings  are  uniformly  pale  yellowish  without 
darker  spots.  Its  larva  does  not  construct  a  case,  but  spins 
a  silky  web  wherever  it  goes.  When  grown  it  makes  a 
cocoon  of  silk  with  bits  of  wool  intermixed,  within  which  the 
pupal  stage  is  passed.  This  species  has  two  generations, 
the  first  moths  appearing  in  June  and  the  second  generation 
in  August  and  September.  The  Tapestry  Moth  |  is  a  much 
rarer  species  in  this  country.  It  is  larger,  expanding  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch,  and  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  more 
striking  coloration.  The  head  is  white,  the  bases  of  the 
fore  wings  are  black,  and  the  remainder  a  creamy-white 
more  or  less  obscured  with  gray.  This  species  is  more  com- 
mon on  heavier  cloths,  carpets,  horse  blankets,  tapestries, 
etc.,  but  also  affects  feltings,  furs,  skins,  and  the  woolen 
upholstering  of  carriages.  Its  larva  eats  into  the  material 
which  it  infests,  lining  its  burrows  with  silk. 

*  Tinea  pellionella  Linn.     Superfamily  Tineina,  see  page  77. 
t  Tinea  biselliella  Hummel. 
J  Trichophaga  tapetzella  Linn. 


222  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Clothes  moths  are  usually  injurious  only  when  articles 
are  put  away  and  left  for  some  time.  Articles  in  use  are 
rarely  attacked.  Exposing  stored  articles  to  air  and  sun- 
light, with  a  vigorous  brushing  and  shaking  are  old  methods 
of  moth  control.  Moth  balls,  naphthalene,  cedar  chips, 
and  other  repellents  are  often  used  and  are  more  or  less 
effective  if  the  materials  are  free  from  the  moths  when 
stored.  The  best  means  of  preventing  injury  is  to  see  that 
articles  to  be  stored  are  placed  in  tight  receptacles  which  are 
"moth-proof."  The  heavy  paper  bags  sold  by  clothiers 
for  this  purpose  are  satisfactory.  Large,  heavy,  paste- 
board boxes  may  be  secured  very  cheaply  and  after  packing 
away  the  winter  clothing  in  them,  the  cracks  may  be  sealed 
by  gumming  a  strip  of  wrapping  paper  over  them,  thus 
making  the  boxes  moth-tight.  Infested  articles  which  must 
be  returned  to  storage  may  be  fumigated  with  carbon  bisul- 
phide, by  placing  them  in  a  trunk,  and  trunks  or  closets 
harboring  the  moths  should  be  fumigated  with  the  same 
material.  For  the  protection  of  valuable  furs  and  woolens, 
furriers  are  now  making  use  of  cold-storage,  which  entirely 
prevents  the  development  of  insect  pests. 

131.  The  Carpet  Beetle.*  The  adult  carpet  beetle  is  a 
small,  oval,  l)lackish  beetle,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long,  mottled  with  grayish-white,  having  the  inner  margin 
of  each  wing-cover,  where  the  wing-covers  meet  on  the  back, 
marked  with  a  narrow  red  line  from  which  three  short  pro- 
jections extend  laterally.  The  beetles  are  most  commonly 
noticed  in  the  spring,  when  they  will  fly  to  the  windows  if 
they  have  developed  in  the  house.  Out  of  doors  they  are 
found  on  the  blossoms  of  spiraea  and  other  plants,  where 
they  feed  upon  the  pollen.  The  small  whitish  eggs  are  laid 
upon  the  cloth  or  other  material  upon  which  the  larvae  will 

*  Anthrenus  scrophularice  Linn.     Family  Dermestidoe,  see  page  113. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        223 

feed.  The  larvae  are  about  one-fifth  inch  long  when  grown 
and  are  covered  with  thick  tufts  of  coarse  brown  hairs, 
longer  at  the  sides  and  at  the  two  ends,  which  have  probably 
given  the  insect  its  common  name  of  Buffalo  Moth.  They 
feed  on  furs  and  feathers,  but  preferably  on  woolens,  and 
frequently  on  the  under  sides  of  woolen  carpets,  especially 
where  they  can  conceal  themselves  in  floor  cracks. 

Where  rugs  can  be  substituted  for  carpets  there  is  much 
less  liability  of  injurj^  by  this  pest,  as  well  as  by  fleas.  Infested 


Fig.  155. — The  carpet  beetle  (Anthrenus  scrophularice) . 


a,  larva,  dorsal  view;    h,  pupa  within  larval  skin;    c,  pupa,   ventral  view 
adult.     AH  enlarged. 


(From  Riley.) 
d. 


carpets  should  be  steam-cleaned  wherever  possible  so  as  to 
destroy  the  eggs.  If  this  is  not  possible,  heating  the  carpet 
to  125°  will  probably  be  fatal  to  all  eggs  and  larvse. 
Cracks  should  be  soaked  with  gasoline  and  then  filled  with 
a  crack-filler.  The  same  methods  of  control  and  prevention 
as  advised  for  clothes  moths  (page  222),  will  also  prove 
effective. 

A  nearly  related   species   known   as   the   Black   Carpet 
Beetle*  has  very  similar  habits.     It  is  a  black  or  rusty-black, 
slightly  downy,  oval  beetle  about  3/16  of  an  inch  long  and 
*  Attagenus  piceiis  Oliv.     Family  Dermestidce. 


224 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


half  as  wide.  The  larvse  are  about  5/16  inch  long  when  full 
grown,  are  reddish-brown,  taper  somewhat  posteriorly,  and 
bear  a  tail-like  brush  of  brown  hairs  half  as  long  as  the  body. 
132.  The  Pea-Weevil.*  The  common  pea-weevil  occurs 
wherever  peas  are  grown  throughout  the  world  and  is  the 
cause  of  "buggy"  peas.  It  does  but  httle  damage  in  the 
more  northern  latitudes  and  seedsmen  secure  their  seed  from 
Canada  and  northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  The 
weevil  is  of  an  oval  shape,  about  one-fifth  inch  long  and  half 
as  wide,  of  a  blackish  ground  color,  variegated  with  black 


ha  c 

Fig.  156. — The  pea-weevil  (Bruchus  pisorum  L.)     (From  Chittenden, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  adult  beetle;   b,  larva;  c,  pupa — all  enlarged. 

and  white  markings  as  shown  in  Fig.  156.  The  abdomen 
projects  beyond  the  wing-covers  and  is  marked  with  two 
black  spots  at  the  tip.  The  weevils  appear  in  the  fields 
when  the  peas  are  in  bloom  and  lay  the  eggs  on  the  surfaces 
of  the  young  pods.  The  young  larva  bores  through  the  pod 
into  the  seed,  in  which  it  grows  rapidly.  When  grown  it  is 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  and  half  as  wide,  is  a  fleshy, 
nearly  cylindrical,  strongly  wrinkled,  white  grub,  with  a 
brown  head  and  very  short  stubby  legs.  It  makes  a  round 
hole  in  the  pea,  leaving  the  thin  surface  membrane  as  a 
covering  and  then  transforms  to  the  pupa  within  the  pea. 
*  Bruchus  pisorum  Linn.     Family  Bruchidce,  see  page  122. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS       225 

The  adult  weevils  may  emerge  in  from  nine  to  seventeen 
days.  In  more  southern  latitudes  the  weevils  leave  the  seed 
in  August,  but  in  the  North  they  remain  in  the  seed  over 
winter  and  are  in  it  when  planted.  There  is  only  one  gener- 
ation a  year  and  this  species  does  not  reproduce  in  dry  peas. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  destroying  the  weevils,  where  it 
can  be  done,  is  simply  to  hold  the  peas  over  for  a  year,  so 
that  the  weevils  will  emerge  in  the  bags  and  finally  die.  A 
remedy  which  many  Canadian  farmers  have  used  success- 
fully is  to  drench  the  seed  with  kerosene,  using  about  half  a 
gallon  to  five  bushels  of  peas.  It  is  applied  by  placing  the 
peas  on  a  floor  where  they  can  be  shoveled  over  to  insure 
even  treatment  of  all.  When  seed  to  be  used  for  planting  is 
found  infested  with  live  weevils  they  may  be  destroyed  by 
pouring  the  peas  into  a  pot  of  scalding  hot  water.  The 
water  should  be  drained  off  at  once  and  the  peas  cooled  im- 
mediately by  pouring  into  cold  water.  The  same  result 
may  be  secured  by  heating  the  seed  to  145°  Fahrenheit 
and  then  cooling.  Probably  the  best  remedy  is  fumigation 
with  carbon  bisulphide,  using  one  pound  to  100  bushels  of 
seed,  or  one  ounce  to  100  pounds.  A  kerosene  barrel  is  a 
convenient  receptacle  in  which  to  fumigate  small  quantities, 
requiring  about  three  ounces  of  bisulphide.  For  further 
directions  for  use,  see  page  335. 

133.  The  Common  Bean- weevil.  *  The  common  bean- 
weevil  is  the  principal  pest  of  the  bean  in  the  United  States. 
The  adult  weevil  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  is 
covered  with  a  fine  gray-brown  or  olive  pubescence,  and  the 
wing-covers  are  mottled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  157.  It  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  pea-weevil  by  the  larger  thorax 
and  by  the  two  small  teeth  next  to  the  large  tooth  at  the  tip 
of  the  hind  thighs.  The  eggs  are  inserted  in  the  bean-pods 
*  Bruchus  obtectus  Say.     Family  Bruchidoe,  see  page  122. 


226 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


by  the  females  through  any  openings  caused  by  drying  and 
sphtting,  or  are  laid  loosely  among  the  shelled  beans.  The 
larva  feeds  within  the  bean  and  becomes  a  fat  footless  grub 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  pupal  stage  is  also  passed 
within  the  bean.  Experiments  have  shown  that  the  com- 
plete life  cycle  may  require  from  twenty-one  to  eighty  days, 
according  to  the  temperature.  Probably  about  six  genera- 
tions occur  annually  in  the  latitude  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  fewer  farther  north.     A  number  of  weevils  may 


Fig.  157. — The  common  bean-weevil  {Bruchus  ohtedus  Say). 
Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  beetle;  6,  larva;  c,  pupa — all  greatly  enlarged. 


(After 


infest  a  single  bean.  Weevily  seed  should  never  be  planted 
as  but  a  small  percentage  will  germinate.  Infested  seed 
may  be  thrown  lightly  into  water,  when  that  badly  infested 
will  float  and  can  be  destroyed. 

Either  heat  or  fumigation  as  advised  for  the  pea-weevil 
will  be  effective,  except  that  it  is  useless  to  hold  the  seeds 
over,  as  this  species  breeds  in  the  stored  seed. 

134.  Grain-weevils  and  Grain-beetles  (45).  The  term 
"weevil"  is  commonly  applied  to  almost  any  insect  affecting 
stored  grain,  but  it  should  be  used  only  for  the  true  snout- 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        227 


beetles,  of  which  the  Granary-iveevil  *  and  the  Rice-weevil  f 
are  the  most  common.  They 
are  small,  brown,  wingless 
beetles,  from  one-eighth  to 
one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
with  long  snouts  which  are  of 
great  service  in  boring  into 
the  kernels  of  grain.  By- 
means  of  them  the  females 
puncture  the  grain  and  then 
insert  an  egg  in  the  cavity. 
The  larva  hatching  from  this 
is  without  legs,  somewhat 
shorter  than  the  adult,  white 
in  color,  and  of  a  very  robust 
build,  being  almost  as  broad 
as  long.  It  soon  devours 
the  soft  interior  of  the  kernel 
and  then  changes  to  a  pupa, 
from  which  the  adult  beetle 
emerges  in  about  six  weeks 
from  the  time  the  egg  was 
laid. 

Only  a  single  larva  in- 
habits a  kernel  of  wheat,  but 
several  will  often  be  found  in 
that  of  corn.  Not  only  do 
the  larvae  injure  the  grain, 
but  the  beetles  feed  upon  it, 
and  then  hollow  out  a  shelter 
for  themselves  within  the  hull. 


Fig.  158.— The  grain-weevil  (Ca- 
landra  grmiaria).  (After  Chit- 
tenden, U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  beetle;  h,  larva;   c,  pupa;  rf,  the  rice 
weevil  (C.  oryza) :  beetle — all  enlarged. 


*  Calandra  granaria  Linn. 

t  Calandra  oryzm  Linn.     Family  Calandridce, 


228 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  beetles  are  quite  long-lived,  and  thus  do  considerable 
damage.  As  there  are  three  or  four  broods  in  the  North  and 
six  or  more  in  the  South,  it  has  been  estimated  that  the 
progeny  of  one  pair  would  amount  to  6000  insects  in  a  single 
season. 

Another  beetle  very  common  in  the  granary,  but  of  quite 
different  appearance,  is  the  Saw-toothed  Grain-beetle  *  (Fig. 
159).     It   is  a  cosmopolitan  pest   and  is  nearly  omnivor 


Fig.    159. — The     saw-toothed    grain-beetle    {Silvanus   surinamensis). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,   adult  beetle;   6,   pupa;  c,   larva — all   enlarged;  d,   the   red   or  square-necked 
grain-beetle  (Cathartus  gemellatus). 


ous.  The  beetle  is  only  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long, 
very  much  flattened,  of  a  dark-brown  color,  and  may  be 
easily  recognized  by  the  six  saw-like  teeth  on  each  side  of  the 
thorax.  The  larva  is  of  a  dirty-white  color,  and  quite  dis- 
similar from  that  of  the  granary  weevil.  Having  six  legs  to 
carry  it  about,  it  is  not  satisfied  with  a  single  seed,  but  runs 
about  here  and  there,  nibbling  at  several.  When  full  grown 
the  larva  glues  together  several  grains  or  fragments  into  a 
*  Silvanus  surinamensis  Linn.     Family  Cucujidoe. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        229 

little  case,  and  inside  of  this  transforms  to  the  pupa  and 
then  to  the  beetle.  There  are  from  three  to  six  or  more 
generations  during  a  season,  according  to  the  latitude. 

The  Red  or  Square-necked  Grain-beetle  *  is  about  the  same 
size  as  the  last  species,  but  is  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  the 
thorax  is  almost  square,  nearly  as  broad  as  the  abdomen  and 
not  notched  at  the  sides.  It  breeds  in  corn  in  both  the 
field  and  granary,  first  destroying  the  germ,  so  that  it  is 
particularly  injurious  to  seed  corn. 

The  Cadelle  f  also  has  the  bad  habit  of  first  attacking 
the  germ  of  the  kernel,  and  going  from  one  kernel  to  another 
destroys  a  large  number  for  use  as  seed.  It  has  the  good 
trait,  however,  of  feeding  on  other  injurious  grain  insects. 
The  beetle  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  oblong,  flat, 
and  nearly  black.  The  larva  is  a  fleshy,  whitish  grub, 
nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  when  grown,  with  a 
brown  head,  the  thoracic  segments  marked  with  brown  and 
the  abdomen  ending  in  two  dark  horny  processes. 

The  larvae  of  two  species  of  beetles  |  are  very  common 
in  bran  and  meal,  as  well  as  other  grain  products,  and  are 
commonly  known  as  meal  worms.  They  are  used  for  bird 
food  and  are  grown  in  quantity  by  bird  stores.  The  beetles 
are  about  one-half  inch  long,  T.  molitor,  being  a  shining  black 
and  somewhat  lighter  than  T.  obscurus,  which  is  a  dull 
black.  Running  lengthwise  of  the  wing-covers  are  sixteen 
furrows.  The  larvae,  or  meal-worms,  are  about  one  inch 
long,  yellowish  in  color,  cylindrical,  and  have  a  hard,  shiny 
skin.  At  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  are  two  small  dark-colored 
spines.     They  grow  rather  slowly  and  may  live  for  a  long 

*  Cathartus  gemellatus  Duv.  Family, 
t  Tenebriodes  mauritanicus  Linn.     Family  Trogositidce. 
t  Tenebrio  obscurus  and  Tenebrio  molitor  Linn.     Family  Tenebri- 
onidoe,  see  page  123. 


230 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


time  without  food  and  in  very  dry  material.     There  seems 
to  be  but  a  single  generation  in  a  year. 

135.  Flour  and  Meal-moths  (37).  The  larvae  of  several 
small  moths  sometimes  infest  grain  in  store,  but  usually  pre- 
fer flour,  meal  and  food  products.  The  most  destructive 
of  these  is  the  Mediterranean  Flour  Moth*  It  was  imported 
from  Europe  in  the  '70's  and  has  now  become  generally  dis- 
tributed over  the  United  States.  The  adult  moth  expands 
about  an  inch,  the  fore  wings  are  a  lead-gray  color  with 
transverse  blackish  markings,  and  the  hind  wings  are  dirty 


Fig.  160. — The  Mediterranean  flour-moth  (Ephestia  kuehniella).    (After 

Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  moth;   6,  same  from  side,   resting,   c,  larva;   d,  pupa — enlarged;   e,  abdominal 
joint  of  larva — more  enlarged. 

whitish  with  a  darker  border.     The  caterpillars  feed  in  cylin- 
drical silken  tubes  which  makes  them  a  great  nuisance  in 
mills,  where  the  machinery  becomes  clogged  with  the  felted 
flour.     The  life  cycle  ordinarily  occupies  about  two  months, 
but  may  be  completed  in  thirty-eight  days. 
^^  The  Indian  Meal-moth  f  (Fig.  161)  larvae,  like  the  grain- 
beetles,  have  a  special  liking  for  the  germ  of  wheat  grains. 
They  spin  a  fine  silken  web  as  they  go  from  seed  to  seed,  to 
which  the  seed  becomes  attached  and  to  which  the  excre- 
*  Ephestia  kuehniella  Zell.     Family  Pyralidce.     See  page  75.  -  * 
I  Plodia  interpunctella  Hbn.     Family  Pyralidce.  .  . 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        231 


Fig.    161. — The  Indian  meal-moth  (Plodia 
inter pundella).     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 
a,  moth;  b,  pupa;  c,  caterpillar — enlarged. 


ment  also  clings,  so  that  much  more  grain  is  spoiled  for  food 
than  is  really  injured.     The  moth   expands    about    three- 
fourths  of  an  inch,  the  inner  third  of  the  fore  wings  being 
a  light  grayish  and 
the  outer  portion   a 
reddish-brown    with 
a  coppery  luster. 

The  Meal  Snout- 
moth  *  (Fig.  162),  is 
of   a   light  brown 
color,    the    thorax, 
base,  and  tips  of  the 
fore  wings   being 
darker  brown.     The 
"%ings  expand  nearly 
an  inch  and  are  other- 
wise marked  with  whitish  lines  as  shown  in  the  figure.     It  is 
very  similar  to  the  last-mentioned  species  in  its  habits,  con- 
structing long  tubes  with  silk 
and   particles  of  the  food  in 
which  it  is  living.      The  life- 
history  is  completed  in  about 
eight  weeks,  and  four  genera- 
tions may  occur  in  a  year.  The 
moisture  of  "heated"  grain  is 
most  favorable  for  the  devel- 
opment  of   this  pest,   and  it 
need   not  be  feared    if   grain 
is  kept  in  a  clean,  dry  place. 

The  worst   pest  of  stored 
grain   in  the   South   is   the   Angoumois  Grain  Moth.'\ 


Fig.  162. — The  meal  snout-moth 
{Py  r  a  I  i  s  farinali  s) — twice 
natural  size.  (After  Chit- 
tenden, U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


It 


*  Pyralis  Jarinalis  Linn.     Family  Pyralidcp,  see  page  78. 
t  Sitotroga  cerealella  Oliv.     Family  Gelechiidae. 


232 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


receives  its  name  from  a  province  in  France  where  it 
wrought  havoc  in  1760.  It  occurs  throughout  the  South 
and  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  Wheat,  corn, 
oats,  rye,  barley,  sorghum-seed,  and  even  cow-peas  are 
injured.  The  moths  quite  closely  resemble  clothes  moths 
(page  220),  expanding  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch, 
being  of  a  yellowish-buff  color,  marked  with  black,  and 
with  the  same  broad  fringe  on  the  hind  wings.     The  moths 


Fig.  163. — The  Angoumois    grain-moth    (Sitotroga  cerealella).     (After 
Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  eggs;    b,  larva  at  work;    c,  larva,  side  view;    d,  pupa;    e,  moth;   /,  same,  side 


emerge  from  infested  grain  in  late  May  or  June,  when 
they  fly  to  the  growing  grain,  on  which  each  female  lays 
from  60  to  90  eggs.  The  young  caterpillars  bore  into  the 
kernels,  where  they  feed  and  become  full  grown  in  about 
three  weeks.  Full  grown  caterpillars  are  about  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  long,  white  in  color,  with  a  yellowish  head,  and 
have  four  pairs  of  soft  prolegs  on  the  middle  of  the  abdomen. 
The  second  brood  of  moths  appears  about  harvest  time. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  July,  depositing  them  on  the  wheat  in 
the  stack.     The  caterpillars  hatching  from  these  eggs  may 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD   GOODS        233 

remain  in  the  grain  over  winter,  but  in  warm  seasons  a 
third  brood  of  moths  may  be  developed  by  early  September. 
This  species  continues  to  breed  within  doors  all  winter,  al- 
though feeding  stops  in  very  cold  weather.  The  number  of 
generations  depends  entirely  upon  latitude  and  weather. 
In  the  South  there  may  be  as  many  as  eight  in  a  year. 

Corn  is  frequently  attacked,  but  not  until  it  is  ripe  and 
husked,  and  then  but  rarely  when  husked  in  October  and 
November  and  stored  outdoors  in  slatted  cribs.  Seed-corn 
stored  in  barns,  and  in  the  South  in  almost  any  situation,  is 
often  badly  injvu'cd. 

Aside  from  the  loss  in  weight,  grain  when  badly  infested 
becomes  unfit  for  milling  purposes,  and  will  even  be  refused 
by  cattle  and  horses,  which  should  not  be  urged  to  eat  it, 
though  hogs  and  fowls  will  readily  consume  it. 

Grain  should  be  threshed  as  soon  after  harvest  as  pos- 
sible and  placed  in  tight  bins  or  sacks.  Infested  grain 
should  be  fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide  as  soon  as 
threshed.  Sacked  grain  will  not  heat  if  infested,  and  the 
moths  cannot  get  out  and  are  stifled.  If  placed  in  bins, 
they  should  be  made  tight  and  if  the  grain  heats  perceptibly, 
it  should  at  once  be  fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide. 
Corn  should  be  husked  before  storing.  Barns  and  store- 
houses should  be  cleaned  up  from  scattered  grain  before 
April  first,  and  infested  grain  should  be  kept  tightly 
covered  in  the  spring  so  that  no  moths  will  spread  to  the 
field. 

136.  Control  of  Grain  Insects.  Cleanliness  is  pre- 
requisite to  freedom  from  grain  pests.  Wherever  dust,  dirt, 
rubbish,  sweepings  of  grain  and  its  products,  are  allowed  to 
accumulate,  ideal  conditions  for  the  reproduction  of  grain 
insects  are  afforded.  It  is  highly  desirable  where  grain  is  to 
be  stored  on  the  farm,  that  a  separate  building  be  provided 


234  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

at  some  distance  from  other  buildings.  It  should  be  con- 
structed of  matched  flooring  so  as  to  be  as  near  insect-tight 
as  possible.  The  doors  should  fit  tightly,  closing  on  a  rabbet, 
which  may  be  covered  with  felt  or  packing.  The  windows 
should  be  covered  with  fine  wire  screening  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  insects.  The  floors,  walls  and  ceiling  should  be 
made  smooth,  with  no  cracks  in  which  insects  may  hide.  It 
is  important  that  the  building  be  dry,  well  ventilated  and  as 
cool  as  possible,  as  reproduction  is  much  more  rapid  in  a 
warm  place,  and  infested  grain  will  heat  more  quickly.  It  is 
desirable  to  store  grain  in  bulk,  as  a  smaller  surface  is  thus 
exposed  to  infestation,  and  the  moths  do  not  penetrate  far 
beneath  the  surface.  The  best  means  of  destroying  insects 
in  the  small  granary  is  by  fumigating  with  carbon  bisulphide 
(page  335).  The  room  or  bin  in  which  it  is  to  be  used  should 
be  made  tight.  Bins  may  be  covered  with  blankets.  The 
liquid  may  be  poured  directly  on  the  grain,  which  it  will 
not  injure.  Care  should  always  be  exercised  that  no  fire 
comes  near  the  place  fumigated,  as  the  gas  is  exceedingly 
inflammable.  Mills  and  storehouses  which  are  badly  in- 
fested are  often  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  (page 
336).  Prof.  R.  I.  Smith  has  shown  that  sulphur  dioxid,  pro- 
duced by  burning  sulphur  slightly  dampened  with  alcohol, 
will  kill  most  grain  insects,  but  injures  the  germinating  power 
of  the  grain.  "It  was  found  that  the  fumes  produced  by 
burning  2|  pounds  of  sulphur  either  in  moist  or  dry  atmos- 
phere of  1000  cubic  feet  space,  for  twenty  hours,  would  kill 
all  exposed  adult  insects  and  practically  all  the  young  stages 
in  the  grain,  but  that  this  also  destroyed  its  germinating 
power.  .  .  .  While  this  treatment  cannot  be  recommended 
for  general  fumigation,  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  being  the 
easiest  and  cheapest  method  of  fumigating  corn  cribs,  grana- 
ries and  similar  places  whenever  they  are  being  cleaned  out 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  HOUSEHOLD  GOODS        235 

and  freed  of  insects  in  preparation  for  the  reception  of  mors 
grain." 

The  heating  of  grain  was  one  of  the  earhest  means  known 
of  combating  grain  insects,  but  has  been  httle  used  in  this 
country.  Recently,  however,  Prof.  Geo.  A.  Dean  (52),  has 
shown  that  by  super-heating  mills  they  may  be  rid  of  insect 
pests  much  more  quickly  and  cheaply  than  by  fumigation, 
and  with  no  risk  from  fire  or  from  cyanide  poisoning.  His 
experiments  show  that  if  the  temperature  surrounding  an 
insect  be  maintained  above  120°  F.,  with  a  normal  amount 
of  moisture,  that  in  a  very  few  minutes  it  will  be  killed. 
This  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most  practicable  methods 
of  cleaning  mills  and  may  be  used  for  small  quantities  of 
grain,  where  there  are  facilities  for  heating  it  or  placing  it  in 
a  superheated  room. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


FIELD    CROP    INSECTS 


137.  White  Grubs.*  The  large  grubs  (15)  with  brown 
heads  and  enlarged  curled-up  abdomens,  which  are  thrown 
out  in  plowing  sod  land,  are  commonly  known  as  ivhite 
grubs.  Although  there  are  numerous  species,  they  are  all 
very  similar  in  general  color  and  form  and  are  the  larva? 
of  different  species  of  the  large  brown  May-beetles  or  June- 


FiG.  164. — A   May-beetle  (Lachnosterna  arcuala).     (After  Chittenden, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  beetle;  b,  pupa;  e,  mature  larva — enlarged  one-fourth. 

bugs,  which  frequently  fly  to  lights  in  late  spring.  White 
grubs  are  most  abundant  in  sod  land  and  often  seriously 
injure  old  meadows,  but  their  injury  is  most  commonly 
noticed  on  corn,  strawberries  and  garden  crops. 

The  eggs  are  laid  one  to  five  inches  below  the  surface  of 

the  soil  in  grass  lands,  though  sometimes  in  corn  land  or 

gardens,  and  hatch  by  midsummer.     The  young  grubs  feed 

*  Lachnosterna  spp.    Family  Scaraboeidw.    See  page  118 

236 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  237 

upon  the  plant  roots  available  and  grow  slowly,  as  they 
require  two  years  or  more  to  become  full  grown.  In  the  fall 
they  go  deeper  in  the  soil  and  by  the  first  freeze  they  are 
from  seven  to  fourteen  inches  deep.  The  next  year  they 
do  much  more  serious  damage  and  crops  are  often  ruined 
on  sod  land  which  has  been  planted  to  corn,  strawberries  or 
garden  crops.  As  many  as  thirty-four  grubs  have  been 
found  in  a  single  hill  of  corn  in  an  Ilhnois  field  in  sod  the 
previous  year.  When  the  grub  is  two  or  three  years  old  it 
forms  a  cell  from  three  to  ten  inches  below  the  surface  and 
there  changes  to  the  pupa  during  midsummer.  In  August 
or  September  the  adult  beetle  wriggles  out  of  the  pupal  skin 
but  remains  in  the  earthen  cell  until  the  following  spring, 
when  it  emerges  fully  hardened.  Thus  three  full  years  are 
required  for  the  life  cycle,  although  grubs  in  all  stages  of 
development  may  be  found  in  the  soil  every  year.  The 
adult  beetles  feed  at  night  upon  the  foliage  of  various  trees 
and  hide  in  the  soil  during  the  day.  Different  species  have 
favorite  food  plants,  but  all  the  common  decidous  shade  and 
forest  trees  are  more  or  less  eaten,  maple  and  poplar  par- 
ticularly. 

A  frequent  rotation  of  crops,  followmg  sod  with  some 
crop  not  particularly  injured  by  the  grubs,  will  form  the  most 
important  general  means  of  control,  as  allowing  land  to 
remain  in  grass  for  several  years  furnishes  them  ideal  con- 
ditions for  multiplication.  Deep  plowing  and  thorough 
harrowing  in  late  fall,  winter  and  early  spring  will  break  up 
many  of  the  pupal  cells  and  destroy  the  tender  beetles,  both 
by  burying  and  crushing  them  and  by  exposing  them  to 
abnormal  conditions.  Swine  will  gorge  themselves  on  the 
grubs  on  badly  infested  land  and  if  confined  so  that  they 
can  thoroughly  root  it  over,  will  effectively  clean  it  of  them. 
Flocks  of  turkeys  or  chickens  following  the  plow  destroy 


238 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


large  numbers,  a,s  do  crows  and  blackbirds.  Lanterns  hung 
over  pans  or  tubs  of  water  with  a  surface  film  of  kerosene, 
placed  near  the  trees  on  which  the  beetles  feed,  will  catch 
large  numbers  of  them  on  warm  nights. 

138.  The  Chinch-bug  *  (16).  Though  individually  in- 
significant, when  assembled  in  countless  myriads  chinch- 
bugs  have,  doubtless,  done  greater  injury  to  the  farmers  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  than  any  other  insect  attacking  grain 
crops,  the  total  damage  from  1850  to  1909  being  estimated  at 


Fig.  165. — The  chinch-bug  (Blissus  Jeucopterus  Say).     (After  Riley.) 

Adult  at  left;  a,  b,  eggs  magnified  and  natural  size;  c,  young  nymph;  e,  second 
stage  of  nymph;  /,  third  stage;  g,  fuU-grov/n  nymph  or  pupa;  d,  h,  j,  legs;  t, 
beak  through  which  the  bug  sucks  its  food. 

$350,000,000.  The  principal  injury  is  to  small  grains  and 
corn  in  the  Central  and  North  Central  States,  though  oc- 
casionally injury  occurs  in  the  Eastern  States,  particularly 
to  old  timothy  meadows.  The  adult  chinch-bug  is  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  long  with  a  black  body.  Its  white  wings 
lie  folded  over  each  other  on  the  abdomen,  and  are  marked 
by  a  small  black  triangle  on  their  outer  margins,  while  the 
bases  of  the  antennae  and  legs  are  red.  The  young  bugs  are 
yellowish  or  bright  red,  marked  with  brownish-black,  be- 
coming darker  as  they  grow  older. 

*  Blissus  leucopterus  Say.     Family  Lygmdo',  see  page  60. 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  239 

The  bugs  hibernate  over  winter  in  chimps  of  grass,  in 
the  butts  and  in  old  shocks  of  corn,  or  under  whatever  rub- 
bish is  available.  In  early  spring  they  feed  upon  grass  and 
small  grains.  The  females  lay  their  small  yellowish-white 
eggs  upon  the  roots  or  l)ascs  of  the  stalks,  each  laying  from 
150  to  200  eggs  from  the  middle  of  April  until  June  first. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  three  weeks.  The  young  bugs  often 
do  serious  injury  to  small  grains  and  grasses  and  become  full 
grown  about  the  time  the  former  are  harvested.  When  the 
small  grains  are  harvested  the  bugs  spread  to  corn,  but 
curiously  enough,  although  the  adults  are  winged  they 
usually  travel  from  field  to  field  on  foot.  Eggs  are  then 
laid  on  the  corn,  between  the  leaf -sheaths  and  the  stalks, 
and  hatch  in  about  ten  days.  This  second  brood  matures 
in  August  and  September  and  hibernates  over  winter, 
although  where  corn  is  not  available  the  whole  season  may  be 
passed  on  grass. 

The  burning  over  of  grass  land  and  the  grass  along  fences, 
hedges  and  roads,  as  soon  as  it  becomes  dry  enough  in  late 
fall  and  early  winter,  is  of  prime  importance  for  destroying 
the  bugs  after  they  have  gone  into  hibernation,  and  if  thor- 
oughly done  by  co-operative  effort  over  large  areas,  will  be 
the  cheapest  and  most  effective  means  of  control.  The 
removal  of  all  corn  stalks  from  the  fields  and  plowing  the 
butts  under  deeply,  or,  where  the  bugs  are  very  abundant, 
raking  out  the  butts  and  burning  them,  will  be  of  importance 
in  some  sections. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  combat  the  bugs  success- 
full}'  on  small  grains  and  grass,  but  the  migration  to  corn  may 
be  effectually  checked.  This  may  be  done  best  by  running  a 
line  of  thick,  viscid  road  oil  (No.  7  of  the  Standard  Oil  Co., 
Whiting,  Ind.),  around  the  field  to  be  protected.  The  soil 
should  be  prepared  for  this  oil  line  by  plowing  a  back  furrow 


240  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  packing  the  top  with  a  roller  or  beating  it  hard;  or  a 
strip  of  sod  may  be  prepared  by  scraping  away  the  grass  with 
a  scraper  and  then  smoothing  with  shovels  or  hoes ;  or  a  dead 
furrow  may  be  run  and  the  oil  line  run  on  the  smooth  bottom. 
In  any  case  it  is  important  to  have  a  fairly  smooth,  hard 
surface  for  the  oil  line  so  as  to  conserve  the  oil  and  make  an 
effective  barrier.  The  oil  line  may  be  run  by  pouring  the 
oil  from  a  watering-can  with  the  mouth  stopped  down, 
so  as  to  make  a  line  about  the  thickness  of  one's  finger. 
Along  the  outside  of  this  line  post  holes,  a  foot  deep,  should 
be  sunk  every  few  feet.  The  bugs  crawling  along  the  oil 
line,  which  they  will  not  cross  as  long  as  it  is  intact,  will  fall 
into  the  post  holes,  where  they  will  collect  and  may  be  crushed 
or  otherwise  destroyed.  In  place  of  the  post  holes  the  bugs 
collecting  along  the  line  have  sometimes  been  destroyed  with 
a  blast  torch.  Coal  tar  may  be  used  instead  of  road  oil, 
but  is  more  expensive  and  must  be  renewed  more  frequently. 

Where  immediate  action  is  necessary  and  road  oil  or 
coal  tar  are  not  at  hand,  the  corn  may  be  protected  in  dry 
weather  by  a  dust  furrow.  Plow  a  deep  furrow  around  the 
field  to  be  protected  and  thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil  by 
dragging  a  heavy  log  back  and  forth  through  the  furrow, 
making  the  sides  as  steep  as  possible.  Sink  post  holes  every 
few  feet  in  the  bottom.  In  attempting  to  climb  this  furrow 
the  bugs  will  slide  back  to  the  bottom  and  will  collect  in  the 
holes,  where  they  may  be  killed.  The  dust  furrow  will  be 
of  no  value  in  showery  v/eather  and  is  most  effective  on  light 
soils  in  hot  weather. 

For  destroying  the  bugs  which  pass  the  barriers  and  for 
those  which  may  hatch  on  the  corn,  a  spray  of  rosin  soap, 
one  pound  to  six  gallons  of  water,  has  been  found  very 
effective,  and  should  be  used  on  the  outer  rows,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  field  from  becoming  generally  infested. 


FIELD   CROP  INSECTS 


241 


|>A 


/^ 


Extensive  experiments  in  the  use  of  fungous  diseases 
for  the  control  of  the  chinch-bug  were  conducted  for  many 
years,  but  have  resulted  in  proving  the  impracticabihty  of 
their  artificial  use. 

Where  chinch-bugs  are  abundant  the  farmer  should  pre- 
pare to  devote  himself  and  as  many  hands  as  necessary  to 
fighting  them  promptly  if  he  would  check  their  migration  and 
save  his  corn  crop,  for  delay  may  mean  ruin. 

139.  Grasshoppers  *  (40c?).  Almost  every  year  in  some 
part  of  the  country  crops  are  destroyed  by  hordes  of  hungry 
grasshoppers,  or  locusts,  as 
they  are  called  in  Europe. 
In  the  '70's  vast  areas  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  were  dev- 
astated by  the  clouds  of 
Rocky  Mountain  Locusts 
which  migrated  down  from 
the  table  lands  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  but  in 
recent  years  this  species  has 
practically  disappeared  from 
the  United  States.  Several 
species  are  commonly  de- 
structive throughout  the  country.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  small  Red-legged  Locust,^  which  is  found  in 
almost  every  meadow.  Very  similar  in  both  size  and  ap- 
pearance is  the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust, t  so-called  on  ac- 
count of  its  flying  in  large  numbers  from  one  point  to  another. 
Another  similar  and  closely  related  species  is  the  California 
Devastating  Locust,^  which  has  usually  been  the  most  de- 

*  Family  Acrididce,  see  page  48. 
t  Mdanophis  femnr-rubrum  Har. 
X  Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley. 
§  Melanoplus  devastator  Scud. 


Fig.  166. — Rocky  Mountain  locust; 
adult  and  different  stages  of 
growth  of  young.     (After  Riley.) 


242 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


structive  species  in  that  State.  The  Two-striped  Locust  * 
is  somewhat  larger  and  is  characterized  by  two  yellowish 
stripes  extending  from  the  eyes  along  the  sides  of  the  head 
to  the  extremities  of  the  wing-covers.     Our  largest  winged 

species  is  the  Ameri- 
can Acridium.]  It 
is  a  Southern  spe- 
cies, being  common 
south  of  the  Poto- 
mac and  Ohio  rivers, 
where  it  has  often 
become  quite  de- 
structive. 

Throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  Illinois  south- 
ward, the  Differential  Locust  %  has  become  one  of  the  most 
common  and  destructive  species  and  its  habits  may  be  de- 
scribed to  illustrate  those  of  most  of  the  other  common 


Fig.   167. — The  two-striped   locust    {Mela 
noplus    bivittatus    Scud.).    (After  Riley.) 


Fig.    168. — The   American   acridium    (Schistocerca   americana  Scud.). 
(After  Riley.) 

species.     The  young  grasshoppers  hatch  in  late  spring  and 

are  a  dusky  brown  color,  marked  with  yellow,  resembling 

the  adults  in  shape,  but  lacking  wings.     During  their  growth 

*  Melanoplus  bivittatus  Scud, 
t  Schistocerca  aviericanus  Scud. 
X  Melanoplus  differentialis  Thos. 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS 


243 


they  moult  five  times  at  intervals  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks 
and  are  full  grown  by  midsummer.  The  adults  of  this  spe- 
cies are  li  inches  long  with  a  wing-expanse  of  2  2  inches  and 
a  bright  yellowish-green  color.  The  head  and  thorax  are 
olive-brown ;  the  fore  wings  are  much  the  same  color  without 
markings  but  with  a  brownish  shade  at  the  base;   the  hind 


Fig.    169. — The   differential  locust    (Melanoplus  differentialis  Thos.). 
(After  Riley.) 


wings  are  tinged  with  green;  the  hind  thighs  are  bright  yel- 
low, with  four  black  marks,  and  the  hind  shanks  are  yellow 
with  black  spines  and  a  ring  of  the  same  color  near  the  base. 
The  adults  at  once  attack  whatever  crops  are  available, 
often  finishing  the  destruction  of  those  injured  by  them  as 
nymphs,  but  in  a  few  days  their  appetites  seem  to  become 
somewhat  appeased  and  they 
commence  to  mate  and  wander  in 
search  of  suitable  places  for  laying 
the  eggs.  Relatively  few  eggs  are 
laid  in  cultivated  ground,  the  fa 
vorite  places  being  neglected  fields 
grown  up  in  grass  and  weeds,  the 
edges  of  cultivated  fields,  private  roadways,  banks  of  ditches 
and  small  streams,  and  pasture  lands.  It  is  doubtless  due 
to  these  egg-laying  habits  and  the  abundance  of  food  on  un- 
cultivated land  that  this  species  always  increases  enormously 
on  land  which  has  been  flooded  and  then  lies  idle  for  a  year 
or  two.     Most  of  the  eggs  are  laid  in  August  and  early  Sep- 


Fig.    170. — Egg-mass  of  the 
differential  locust — enlarged. 


244  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

tember.  Each  female  deposits  a  single  egg  mass  (most  other 
species  lay  several  egg  masses),  of  about  100  eggs  just  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  soil.  During  this  season  the  females 
may  frequently  be  found  with  the  abdomens  thrust  deep  in 
the  soil,  as  the  process  of  egg-laying  requires  some  time. 
The  eggs  are  yellow  and  arranged  irregularly  in  a  mass  which 
is  coated  with  a  gluey  substance  to  which  the  earth  adheres, 
and  which  protects  them  from  variable  conditions  of  moist- 
ure and  temperature. 

Deep  plowing  in  late  fall  or  early  spring  effectually 
buries  the  eggs  too  deep  for  the  young  nymphs  to  emerge. 
On  alfalfa  land  thorough  disking  is  often  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  Thorough  harrowing  in  the  fall  so  as  to  pulverize 
the  soil  for  the  depth  of  an  inch  will  break  up  many  of  the 
egg  masses,  though  it  is  not  as  sure  a  control  as  plowing  them 
under. 

When  the  young  emerge,  they  may  sometimes  be  de- 
stroyed by  burning  over  stubble,  grass  and  rubbish  where  it 
is  present  in  sufficient  quantities,  or  by  augmenting  it  with 
straw,  which  may  be  done  to  advantage  on  cold  days  when 
the  nymphs  are  congregated  in  such  shelter.  Plowing  a 
badly  infested  field  in  a  square,  working  toward  the  center  so 
as  to  drive  the  young  ny:r_phs  inward,  will  result  in  burying 
many  of  them  in  the  furrows,  and  the  last  may  be  burned  or 
trapped  in  holes  as  described  below.  Dust  furrows  may  be 
made  as  described  for  chinch-bugs  and  handled  in  the  same 
manner,  the  little  hoppers  drifting  to  the  bottom,  where  they 
are  killed  by  the  heat  on  a  hot  day  or  are  caught  in  the  post- 
holes  sunk  every  few  feet  in  the  bottom.  This  method  may 
be  used  to  advantage  in  plots  of  corn,  cotton,  or  garden  truck 
which  have  already  become  infested,  by  running  furrows 
around  the  field  and  occasionally  through  it,  and  then  driv- 
ing the  young  hoppers  toward  them.     This  may  readily  be 


-1 

FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  ^    Q      245 

done  by  a  number  of  children  armed  with  branch^  '  Where 
ditches  containing  water  are  available  the  young  hoppers 
may  be  destroyed  by  oiling  the  surface  of  the  waier'with 
kerosene  emulsion  and  then  driving  them  into  the  dittbes, 
for  even  if  they  succeed  in  crawling  out  they  will  Succumb 
to  the  oil.  t*^ 

Where  the  young  hoppers  have  congregated  in  large 
numbers  on  the  edges  of  fields,  in  patches  of  weeds,  etc.,  they 
may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  them  with  kerosene  or  crude 
petroleum  either  pure  or,  preferably,  in  an  emulsion,  and  the 
weeds  and  grass  along  fences  and  in  neglected  fields  should 
be  thoroughly  treated  with  a  strong  arsenical  spray  or  dust. 

On  pastures,  small  grains  or  any  crops  permitting  their 
use,  immense  numbers  of  nymphs  may  be  caught  by  the 
use  of  hopperdozers,  which  may  be  utilized  where  the  use 
of  poisoned  bran  would  not  be  possible.  The  hopperdozer 
consists  of  a  shallow  pan,  mounted  on  runners  or  wheels,  con- 
taining water  with  a  surface  of  kerosene  or  crude  petroleum, 
and,  if  larger  than  about  three  feet  square,  is  usually  provided 
with  partitions  to  prevent  slopping.  The  back  and  sides  are 
high  and  sometimes  are  made  of  canvas.  "A  good  cheap 
pan  is  made  of  ordinary  sheet  iron,  eight  feet  long,  eleven 
inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  turned  up  a  foot  high  at  the  back 
and  an  inch  high  in  front.  A  runner  at  each  end,  extending 
some  distance  behind,  and  a  cord  attached  to  each  front 
corner,  complete  the  pan  (Fig.  171).  It  is  easily  pulled  by 
two  boys,  and  by  running  several  together  in  a  row,  one  boy 
to  each  rope,  and  one  to  each  contiguous  pair,  the  best  work 
is  performed  with  the  least  labor."  Larger  hopperdozers 
are  drawn  or  pushed  by  horses. 

Poisoned  bran  mash  has  been  used  against  both  nymphs 
and  adults,  using  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  Paris  green  to 
25  pounds  of  bran.     Poisoned  horse-droppings  have  been 


246 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


used  very  successfully,  especially  in  the  Northwest  and  in 
Canada.  One  part  of  Paris  green  is  mixed  with  100  parts  of 
horse  manure  by  measure.  Enough  water  is  added  to  make 
the  mass  soft  without  being  sloppy.  The  mixture  is  scat- 
tered over  the  fields  from  a  wagon  or  stone-boat  with  a 
paddle.  In  Minnesota  a  similar  mixture  has  been  found 
cheaper  and  more  satisfactory.  It  is  made  of  one  pound  of 
arsenite  of  soda,  120  to  150  pounds  of  horse  manure  and  one 


Fig.  171 — The  Price  oil-pan  or  hopperdozer,  with  partitions  to  prevent 
slopping.     (After  Riley.) 

pint  of  cheap  molasses.     Dissolve  the  arsenite  of  soda  in 

water  and  then  add  to  the  manure,  stirring  well. 

140.  Grain  Aphides.*     The  English  Groin-ciphis,^  the 

most  common  aphid  affecting  wheat  and  other  small  grains, 

is  a  large  green  species  which  occasionally  increases  so  rapidly, 

just  as  the  heads  are  ripening,  as  to  injure  seriously  the 

quality  and  weight  of  the  wheat.     The  wingless  females  are 

*  Family  Aphididce,  see  page  66. 
t  Macrosiphum  granaria  Buckton. 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS 


247 


about  one-tenth  inch  long,  with  black  antenniE  as  long  as,  or 
longer  than,  the  body.  They  are  a  yellowish-green  color  and 
the  long  nectaries  projecting  from  either  side  of  the  abdomen 
are  black.  The  winged  females  are  about  the  same  length, 
the  antennjB  are  a  third  longer  than  the  body,  which  is  of 
the  same  general  coloration  except  that  the  lobes  of  the 
thorax  are  brownish  or  blackish  and  the  abdomen  is  marked 
with  four  or  five 
transverse  blackish 
spots  in  front  of 
the  nectaries. 

The  German 
Grain-aphis*  is 
commonly  associ- 
ated with  this  spe- 
cies and  has  very 
similar  habits.  It 
may  be  distin- 
guished b)^  its  lack- 
ing the  blackish 
markings  on  the 
abdominal  seg- 
ments. 

These  aphides 
appear   on    the 

young  wheat  in  the  spring  and  multiply  rapidly  on  the 
leaves  until  the  grain  commences  to  head,  when  they  crowd 
among  the  ripening  kernels.  As  the  small  grains  ripen  the 
aphides  migrate  to  various  grasses  and  are  not  in  evidence 
during  summer,  l^ut  later  migrate  to  volunteer  oats  and 
wheat,  upon  which  they  breed  until  fall  wheat  is  avail- 
able. 

*  Macrosiphum  cerealis  Kalt. 


Fig.  172. — The  German  grain-aphis  (Macro- 
siphum cerealis  Kalt).  (After  Riley,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  winged  migrant;  h,  nymph  of  same;  c,  wing- 
less parthenogenetic  female;  d,  same  showing  exit 
hole  of  parasite — enlarged. 


248 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  Oat  Aphis  (6),  has  been  discussed  (page  304),  as  an 
apple  pest,  but  should  be  here  noted,  as  it  is  widely  distrib- 
uted on  wheat  and  oats.  The  wingless  females  congregate 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  around  the  crown,  and  on  the  upper 
roots,  injury  seeming  to  be  worse  in  winter,  when  they  often 
cause  the  plants  to  turn  yellowish.     In  the  South  this  species 


. 

\ 

1 

[ 

1 

'         i 

{B 

f 

Fig,  173. — "Green  bugs"  uii  oat 
seedling — enlarged . 


Fig.  174. — Spring  g  r  a  i  u-a  p  h  i  .s 
(Toxoplera  graminum).  Adult 
wingless  female  greatly  enlarged. 
(After  S,  J,  Hunter.) 


continues  to  reproduce  on  small  grains  without  having  an 
alternate  sexual  generation  on  the  apple. 

The  Spring  Grain-aphis  or  Green  Bug  *  (17),   although 

widely  distributed,  has  been  seriously  injurious  only  from 

Kansas  southward,  although  damage  has  occurred  in  the 

Carolinas    and    Tennessee    and    elsewhere.     The    wingless 

*  Toxoptera  graminum  Rond. 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  249 

female  is  from  one-twenty-fifth  to  one-fourteenth  inch  long, 
yellowish-green,  with  a  median  line  slightly  darker,  and  eyes 
and  most  of  the  antennae  black.  The  winged  female  is 
slightly  larger  and  of  the  same  coloration  except  that  the 
head  is  brownish-yellow  and  the  lobes  of  the  thorax  are 
blackish.  The  agamic  females  multiply  rapidly  in  summer, 
for  during  its  life  of  about  a  month  each  female  will  give 
birth  to  fifty  or  sixty  young,  which  commence  to  reproduce  in 
the  same  manner  when  about  a  week  old.  Reproduction  is 
slower  in  winter,  but  in  an  open  winter  a  few  individuals  will 
soon  give  rise  to 
infested  spots 
from  which 
countless  indi- 
viduals will 
spread  over  the 
field  and  en- 
tirely ruin  it  by 

the  middle  of  ^^^-  1^^- — Lysiphlebus  parasite  in  act  of  depositing 
.       .,  •  ,1  eggs  in  the  body  of  a  grain-aphis — much  enlarged. 

Apnl  m  norm-       ^  ^^^^^  Webster,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 
ern  Texas.    As 

the  food  supply  disappears  almost  all  the  young  develop 
wings  and  immense  clouds  of  winged  females  are  carried 
northward  by  the  winds,  so  that  an  outbreak  in  early 
spring  in  the  South  leads  to  infestation  further  north.  As 
soon  as  they  multiply  they  again  spread  northward.  Pro- 
gressing thus  in  1907,  they  reached  southern  Minnesota 
by  July. 

Grain  aphides  are  prevented  from  becoming  so  over- 
abundant as  to  cause  frequent  injury  by  the  attacks  of  small 
wasp-like  parasites.  These  little  parasites  lay  their  eggs  in 
the  aphides,  which  are  soon  killed  by  the  growing  larvae. 
These    parasites   reproduce   even   more   rapidly   than    the 


250 


SCHOOL   ENTOMOLOGY 


aphides,  but  only  at  a  temperature  some  ten  degrees  higher 
than  that  required  by  the  green  bug.  In  cool  wet  weather 
the  aphides  increase  rapidly  and  may  become  destructive 

before  warmer  weather  enables  the 
parasites  to  become  sufficiently 
numerous  to  check  them. 

All  of  these  grain  aphides  multi- 
ply in  the  fall  on  volunteer  oats  and 
wheat.  Their  destruction  in  early 
fall  and  the  abandonment  of  the 
practice  of  growing  volunteer  oats 
in  the  Far  South,  are,  therefore,  of 
prime  importance  for  their  control. 
Where  small  spots  of  young  grain 
plants  have  been  injured  the 
aphides  may  be  killed  by  spraying 
with  a  10  per  cent  kerosene  emul- 
sion, soap  solution  one  pound  to 
six  gallons,  or  Black-leaf-40  tobacco 
extract,  one  part  to  900  parts  of 
water,  to  which  should  be  added 
one  pound  of  soap  to  each  100  gal- 
lons. Such  spots  may  also  be  cov- 
ered with  straw  and  burned,  or  be 
plowed  under.  It  is  of  considerable 
importance,  particularly  with  the 
green  bug,  to  observe  small  spots 
when  injury  first  occurs  and  to 
treat  them  so  as  to  prevent  further  spread. 

141.  The  Hessian  Fly.*     The  most  destructive  of  any 
of  the  insects  attacking  wheat  is  the  Hessian  Fly,  a  small 
midge  which  received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first 
*  Mayetiola  destructor  Say.     Family  Cecidomyiidae. 


Fig.  176. — Dead  "green 
bugs,"  showing  hole 
from  which  the  ma- 
tured parasite  of  Lysi- 
phlebus  emerges.  The 
top  figure  shows  the 
lid  still  attached,  but 
pushed  back;  the  bot- 
tom figure  shows  the 
parasite  emerging. 
Enlarged.  (After 
Webster,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS 


251 


discovered  on  Long  Island,  in  1779,  just  where  the  Hessian 
troops  had  landed  three  years  before.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  it  reduces  the  wheat  crop  by  10  per  cent  every 
year  and  frequently  25  to  50  per  cent  is  lost  in  restricted 
localities. 

The  adult  flies  are  small  dark-colored  gnats  about  one- 


-The  Hessian  fly   {Mayetiola  destructor).     (After  Marlatt, 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  female  fly;  6,  flaxseed  stage  or  pupa;  c,  larva;  d,  head  and  breast-bone  of 
same;  e,  pupa;  /,  puparium;  g,  infested  wheat-stem  showing  emergence  of  pupse 
and  adults — all  greatly  enlarged. 


tenth  of  an  inch  long,  so  small  as  commonly  to  escape  obser- 
vation. The  females  lay  their  small  reddish  eggs  usually 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  maggots  hatching 
from  these  in  the  fall  burrow  beneath  the  sheath  of  the  leaf 
at  its  base,  causing  a  slight  enlargement  at  the  point  of  at- 
tack.    In  the  spring  they  usually  stop  at  one  of  the  lower 


252  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

joints,  but  always  become  fixed  in  the  plant,  absorbing  its 
sap  and  destroying  its  tissues.  The  dark  color  of  the  leaves, 
the  absence  of  central  stems  and  the  stooling  out  of  the 
plants  are  among  the  indications  of  injury  in  the  fall  or 
winter  wheat.  Later  many  plants  yellow  and  die.  The 
spring  maggots  attack  the  laterals,  or  tillers,  which  have 
escaped  the  fall  brood,  so  weakening  thcni  that  the  stems 
break  and  fall  before  ripening  and  cannot  be  readily  har- 
vested. 

The  maggots  become  grown  in  about  a  month,  when  the 
skin  shrivels  and  turns  brown  and  inside  it  is  formed  the 
pupa.  This  outside  case  composed  of  the  larval  skin  is 
known  as  the  "puparium,"  and  this  is  commonly  called  the 
"flax-seed"  stage  from  its  resemblance  to  that  seed.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage  and  the  flies  emerge  in 
April  or  May.  The  summer  brood  remains  in  the  "flax- 
seed" stage  in  the  stubble  during  the  late  summer  and  the 
flies  emerge  when  the  first  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall. 

The  principal  means  of  control  is  by  the  late  planting 
of  wheat  in  the  fall.  The  flies  appear  within  about  a  week 
and  then  disappear  and  if  planting  be  delayed  so  that  the 
wheat  will  not  be  up  until  after  that  time,  there  will  be  but 
little  injury.  Dry  weather  in  late  summer  and  early  fall 
delays  the  appearance  of  the  flies  and  the  farther  south,  the 
later  they  appear.  In  average  seasons  it  will  probably  be 
found  safe  to  sow  wheat  in  the  latitude  of  northern 
Michigan  soon  after  September  1st;  in  southern  Michigan 
and  northern  Ohio  about  September  20th;  in  southern 
Ohio  after  the  first  week  in  October;  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  October  10th  to  20th,  and  in  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina,  October  25th  to  November  15th.  The  exact  time 
will  also  depend  upon  the  altitude,  every  100  feet  of  alti- 
tude making  the  date  about  one  day  earlier.     As  the  infesta- 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  253 

tion  of  the  fall  wheat  comes  from  the  stubble  it  is  important 
to  disk  the  stubble  immediately  after  harvest  and  three  or 
four  weeks  later  plow  the  land  at  least  six  inches  deep,  so 
that  all  stubble  and  volunteer  wheat  will  be  well  buried. 
The  land  should  then  be  refirmed  and  worked  into  a  good 
seed  bed,  keeping  it  mellow  and  free  from  volunteer  wheat. 
The  importance  of  the  best  possible  preparation  of  the  land 
and  the  destruction  of  volunteer  wheat  cannot  be  over- 
emphasized. 

142.  The  Corn  Earworm  or  Cotton  Bollworm  *  (18). 
This  is  practically  the  only  insect  seriously  injuring  the  ears 
of  field  corn.  In  the  South  it  is  so  abundant  on  sugar  corn 
as  to  make  it  very  difficult  to  secure  uninjured  ears,  and  in 
the  Middle  States  it  greatly  reduces  the  profit  in  growing 
corn  for  the  cannciy.  In  the  South  it  bores  into  the  half- 
formed  cotton  Ijolls,  often  materially  reducing  the  crop,  and 
is,  therefore,  known  as  the  Cotton  Bollworm.  In  tomato- 
growing  sections  it  is  called  the  Tomato  Fruilworm,  from  its 
habit  of  eating  into  the  green  fruits  and  in  tobacco  regions 
it  is  the  Tobacco  Budworm  on  account  of  its  injury  by  boring 
into  the  buds  and  seed-pods.  Numerous  other  crops  such 
as  beans,  peas,  and  many  garden  and  forage  crops  are  also 
attacked. 

The  moths  have  a  wing  expanse  of  about  If  inches  and 
are  quite  variable  in  color  and  markings.  Some  are  dull 
olive-green  while  others  are  yellowish  and  with  almost  no 
markings.  Typically  the  wings  are  bordered  Avith  dark 
bands,  the  wing-veins  are  black  and  the  fore  wings  are 
spotted  with  black.  In  the  Gulf  States  the  moths  appear  in 
April  and  in  the  Middle  States  early  in  June.  The  eggs  of 
the  first  generation  are  laid  on  corn,  peas,  beans,  or  whatever 
food-plants  are  available  and  hatch  in  from  three  to  five 
*  Hclioihis  obsoleta  Fab.     Family  Noctuidcc. 


254 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


days.  They  are  light  yellowish,  and  prettily  corrugated. 
The  caterpillars  of  the  first  generation  often  attack  corn 
when  it  is  about  knee-high,  feeding  in  the  axils  of  the  tender 
leaves  so  that  when  they  unroll  they  bear  rows  of  holes. 


Fig.  178. — The  corn  ear-worm  (HclioUiis  obsoleta  Fab). 

a,  eggs  on  corn-silk;    6,  the  first  three  larval  stages;    c,  pupa  from  below;    d, 
same  from  above;  e,  adult  moth — all  enlarged;  b.  about  twice  natural  size. 

The  caterpillars  are  also  quite  variable  in  color,  ranging  from 
a  light  green,  through  rose  color  and  brown  to  almost  black, 
and  being  either  striped,  spotted  or  perfectly  plain.  They 
become  grown  in  about  two  and  a  half  weeks  and  are  then 
from  It  to  1  i  inches  long.  The  grown  caterpillar  burrows  into 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS 


255 


the  soil  for  two  to  five  inches  and  after  making  an  upward 
burrow  nearly  to  the  surface  for  the  escape  of  the  moth, 
changes  to  a  pupa  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow.  During 
the  summer  the  moths  emerge  in  about  two  weeks,  but  the 
last  generation  in  the  fall  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupal 
stage.  The  second  generation  of  moths  appears  about  mid- 
summer in  the  lati- 
tude of  Delaware  and 
Kansas.  The  cater- 
pillars of  the  second 
generation  in  the 
South  and  of  the 
third  farther  north 
prefer  to  lay  their 
eggs  on  corn  silk  and 
tassels  and  do  seri^ 
ous  injur}^  by  eating 
outthetipsoftheears. 
From  2  to  3  per  cent 
of  the  corn  crop  of 
the  country,  valued 
at  from  $30,000,000 
to  $50,000,000,  is 
thus  destroyed  an- 
nually, and  the  an- 
nual damage  to  cot- 
ton is  estimated  at 

$20,000,000.  In  the  Gulf  States  there  are  four  or  five  gener- 
ations, the  larvae  of  the  third  and  fourth  generations  being 
the  most  injurious  to  cotton  in  August  and  September.  This 
is  also  the  season  when  tobacco  is  worst  injured. 

Inasmuch  as  the  pupse  pass  the  winter  in  the  soil,  the 
most  practical  means  of  control  is  to  plow  infested  land  in 


Fig.  179. — BoUworm  at  work  on  cotton 
bolls,  boring  into  grown  boll — slightly 
reduced.  (After  Quaintance  and  Brues, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


256 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


late  fall  or  during  the  winter,  and  to  harrow  thoroughly. 
This  breaks  up  the  pupal  cells,  crushing  some,  and  exposing 
others  to  the  elements.  Field  corn  which  is  planted  early 
is  much  less  injured  than  that  planted  later.  Where  the 
caterpillars  of  the  first  generation  are  noticed  in. the  axils  of 
the  young  corn,  they  may  be  destroyed  by  sprinkling  pow- 
dered arsenate  of  lead  in  the  axil.     The  same  method  should 


Fig.   180, — Bollworm  boring  into  green  tomato, 
and  Brues,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


(After  Quaintance 


be  used  for  destroying  the  worms  in  tobacco  buds.  Thor- 
ough spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  will  prevent  injury  to 
tomatoes.  As  with  corn,  cotton  planted  early  and  quickly 
matured  is  but  little  injured.  Dusting  cotton  foliage  with 
powdered  arsenate  of  lead  will  destroy  the  young  caterpillars 
where  they  are  sufficiently  abundant  to  warrant.  As  the 
moths  prefer  to  lay  their  eggs  on  corn  silk,  cotton  may  be 
protected  by  the  use  of  strips  of  late  corn  planted  through 
the  fields  so  as  to  act  as  a  trap  crop.     About  June  first  plant 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS 


257 


several  alternate  rows  of  jMcxican  June  corn  and  eow-peas, 
in  strips,  through  the  cotton,  so  that  the  corn  will  be  in  silk 
about  the  first  of  August  when  the  moths  of  the  third  gener- 
ation are  laying  their  eggs.  They  will  ])e  attracted  to  lay  on 
the  corn  in  preference  to  the  cotton  and  the  cow-peas  will 
furnish  them  both  food  and  shelter.  As  soon  as  the  worms 
become  fairly  grown,  the  corn  and  cow-peas  should  be  cut 
and  fed  to  stock,  and  the  land  plowed  to  destroy  any  which 
may  have  pupated.  Planting  small  areas  of  corn  and  cow- 
peas  here  and  there  on  large  plantations  will  have  much  the 
same  effect.  They  may  follow  early  crops  such  as  potatoes, 
oats  or  wheat. 
)^^_l^  143.  The  Cotton  Worm.*  The  cotton  worm  (19)  is  the 
most  serious  insect  pest  of  cotton  foliage  and  prior  to  the 
advent  of  the  boll  weevil  was  the 
worst  enemy  of  the  cotton  plant. 
When  very  abundant  these  hungry 
caterpillars  will  strip  the  foliage 
over  considerable  areas  in  a  fesv 
days  and  will  eat  the  buds  and 
even  attack  the  twigs  so  that  only 
prompt  action  will  save  the  crop. 
Fortunately  the  worst  damage  is 
usually  not  done  until  early  fall, 
and  inasmuch  as  only  early  cot- 
ton can  be  grown  wherever  the 
boll  weevil  occurs  and  no  effort 
is  made  to  secure  a  late  or 
"top-crop,"  the  real  injury  by 
the  cotton  worms,  in  the  l)oll 
weevil    region,   is   not   as  serious    as   formerly. 

During  the  winter  months  the  adult  moths  hibernate  in 
*  Alabama  argillacea  Hubn.     Family  Noctuidce. 


Fig.  181. — Cotton  worm 
moths,  natural  size. 
(Photo  by  Dr.  W.  E. 
Hinds.) 


258 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


the  southern  portion  of  the  cotton  belt.  The  moth  is  a 
grayish-brown  color  with  a  wing  expanse  of  about  1^  inches. 
The  wings  often  have  a  purplish  luster  and  are  marked  with 
darker  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18L  Early  in  the  spring 
they  lay  their  eggs  on  volunteer  cotton,  as  many  as  500  eggs 
being  laid  by  one  moth.  The  caterpillars  feed  greedily  on 
the  tender  foliage  and  become  grown  in  from  one  to  three 


Fig.  182. — Cotton  worms,  natural  size.     (Photo  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Hinds.) 


weeks.  When  grown  they  are  1^  inches  long,  greenish, 
striped  with  black  and  marked  with  numerous  small  black 
dots.  The  mature  caterpillar  draws  together  the  edges  of  a 
leaf  and  within  the  fold  spins  a  thin  silken  cocoon  in  which  it 
transforms  to  a  pupa,  from  which  the  moth  emerges  in  from 
one  to  four  weeks. 

Like  most  of  the  Noctuids  the  moths  fly  only  after  sun- 
set, but  unlike  others  their  mouth-jDarts  are  so  formed  that 
they  are  adapted  to  piercing  the  skin  of  ripe  fruits  and  suck- 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  259 

ing  their  juices.  They  are  strong  fliers  and  the  later  broods 
are  often  carried  northward  by  the  winds  in  large  numbers, 
even  as  far  as  Canada.  The  moths  of  the  first  generation 
in  the  spring  fly  northward,  and  from  eggs  deposited  by 
them  another  generation  develops  in  due  time,  which,  in 
turn,  flies  northward,  and  thus  by  late  summer  the  worms 
are  found  throughout  the  whole  cotton  belt.  At  least  seven 
generations  occur  along  the  Gulf  Coast  and  three  at  the 
northern  limit  of  cotton  growth.  Considering  the  number 
of  eggs  laid  by  each  female,  it  is  evident  that  the  species  will 
multiply  very  rapidly,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  the 
progeny  of  one  moth,  if  there  were  no  mortahty,  would 
amount  to  over  300,000,000,000  individuals  after  four  gen- 
erations, which,  if  Jjlaced  end  to  end,  would  encircle  the 
earth  at  the  equator  over  four  times. 

The  usual  remedy  has  been  to  dust  the  plants  with  Paris 
green.  Powdered  arsenate  of  lead  would,  undoubtedly,  be 
as  effective.  Dusting  machines  which  will  cover  four  rows 
at  once  have  been  in  common  use  w^here  injury  is  frequent. 
It  may  also  be  applied  with  powder  guns.  It  has  most  com- 
monly been  distributed  by  being  shaken  from  bags  fastened 
at  the  ends  of  a  pole  and  carried  by  a  man  on  horseback. 

144.  The  Mexican  Cotton  Boll  Weevil  *  (20).  Probably 
no  one  insect  has  been  so  seriously  and  continuously  injuri- 
ous over  so  large  a  section  of  country  as  the  boll  weevil.  As 
its  name  indicates,  it  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  whence  it  spread 
into  Texas  about  1890.  Since  then  it  has  spread  steadily  east- 
w^ard  until  it  now  inhabits  nearly  aU  of  the  cotton  belt  west  of 
Georgia,  and  in  the  course  of  another  decade,  will,  doubt- 
less, cover  the  Eastern  Cotton  States.  In  1904  the  writer 
made  a  careful  estimate  of  the  loss  caused  by  the  boll  weevil 
in  Texas,  which  showed  that  it  amounted  to  $25,000,000 
*  Anthonomus  grandis  Boh.     Family  Curculionidw. 


260 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


per  annum  and  had  cost  the  State  $100,000,000  up  to 
that  time.  The  amount  of  injury  has  not  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  spread  of  the  pest,  and  although  no  careful 
estimates  have  been  made  recently,  the  total  annual  loss  for 
the  cotton  belt,  as  a  whole,  cannot  be  less  than  $50,000,000 

per  annum,  and  in  some 
years  it  has,  doubtless,  been 
double  that  amount. 

The  boll  weevil  is  a 
small  brownish  beetle  about 
one-fourth  inch  long,  includ- 
ing the  snout  which  is  half 
as  long  as  the  body.  It  may 
be  distinguished  from  nearly 
related  species  and  other 
common  weevils  by  the 
two  teeth  at  the  tip  of  the 
femora  of  the  fore  legs  (Fig. 
183).  It  feeds  only  on 
cotton  and  weevils  found  feeding  on  other  plants  are 
certainly  of  other  species. 

The  weevils  emerge  from  hibernation  from  the  time 
cotton  is  up  until  it  begins  to  "square."  During  the  spring 
they  feed  on  the  foliage,  particularly  the  tender  terminals. 
As  soon  as  the  squares  are  formed  the  females  lay  their  eggs 
in  them,  laying  four  or  five  a  day,  and  depositing  an  average 
of  about  140.  The  egg  hatches  in  about  three  days  and  the 
grub  feeds  within  the  square,  which  usually  fails  to  develop 
and  falls  to  the  ground.  The  larva  becomes  grown  in  seven 
to  twelve  days  and  then  changes  to  the  pupa,  which  lasts 
three  to  five  days.  Thus,  from  egg  to  adult  requires  from 
two  to  three  weeks,  depending  upon  climatic  conditions,  but 
a  full  generation  requires  six  weeks,  and  there  are  not  over 


Fig.   183.— The  cotton  boll  weevil 
— enlarged. . 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  261 

four  or  five  generations  a  year.  The  larva  is  a  footless  white 
grub  with  a  brown  head  and  feeds  entirely  within  the  squares 
or  bolls.  Many  squares  are  destroyed  by  the  feeding 
punctures  of  the  adult  weevils.  The  squares  are  preferred 
both  for  food  and  egg-laying,  but  in  late  summer  and  fall, 
as  they  all  become  infested,  the  bolls  are  attacked,  as  many 
as  fifteen  larvae  having  been  found  in  a  single  boll.  With  the 
first  killing  frosts  the  adult  weevils  go  into  hibernating 
quarters.  In  seeking  places  for  hibernation  the  weevils  fly 
from  field  to  field,  and  it  is  at  this  season  that  the  principal 
migration   takes   place.     They   may   hibernate   in   hedges. 


Fig.   184. — The  cotton  boll  weevil,  natural  size,  showing  variation  in 
size  and  color. 

woods,  corn-fields,  haystacks  or  farm  buildings,  particularly 
about  seed  houses  or  similar  situations.  Others  crawl  into 
cracks  in  the  soil  in  cotton  fields,  under  grass,  into  Spanish 
moss  on  trees,  weeds  or  trash,  into  empty  cotton  ])urrs,  and 
in  the  more  southern  sections  may  hibernate  in  the  injured 
bolls. 

By  far  the  most  important  measure  in  the  control  of  the 
boll  weevil  is  the  destruction  of  the  plants  in  the  fall  as  soon 
as  the  cotton  can  be  picked.  This  both  destroys  the  weevils 
and  prevents  their  increase.  The  stalks  should  be  plowed 
out  and  burned  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  well  to  plow  out 
all  but  a  row  here  and  there  upon  which  the  weevils  will 


262 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


concentrate,  then  as  soon  as  the  piles  are  dry  enough  to  burn, 
cut  the  remaining  rows  and  burn  at  once.  In  this  way  the 
great  bulk  of  the  adult  weevils  and  all  of  the  immature 
states  in  the  squares  and  bolls  are  destroyed  The  few  es- 
caping weevils  will  be  starved  out  before  the  weather  becomes 
cold  enough  for  them  to  hibernate,  or  will  be  so  weakened  as 


■->v--    ■ 

4. 

^V    i 

m^^^ 

■1 

Fig.  185. — Cross-section 
of  cotton  square  show- 
ing egg  and  opening 
through  which  it  was 
laid — greatly  enlarged. 


Fig.  186. — Cotton  squares  broken  open, 
showing  the  boll  weevil  larvae  within 
— enlarged. 


to  die  in  hibernation.  Thus  it  has  been  shown  I)}'  Professor 
Wilmon  Newell,  in  Louisiana,  that  where  the  weevils  were 
forced  into  hibernation  on  October  15th  only  3  per  cent  sur- 
vived the  winter,  but  that  when  the  destruction  of  the  stalks 
was  put  off  until  after  December  15th,  43  per  cent  survived, 
with  proportional  numbers  at  intervening  dates.     Further- 


FIELD   CROP  INSECTS 


283 


more,  the  developincnt  of  the  late  broods  which  furnish  the 
majority  of  the  weevils  which  hibernate  is  effectually  pre- 
vented. The  removal  of  the  plants  also  facilitates  winter 
plowing,  which  aids  in  producing  an  early  crop  the  next 
3'ear.  IMany  experiments  of  the  experience  of  practical 
planters  have  shown  that  the  destruction  of  the  stalks  in 
the  fall  is  of  primary  importance  in  the  control  of  the 
weevil,  particularly  upon  bottom  lands.  The  defoliation  of 
the  plants  by  the  cotton  worms  (page  257),  secures  much 


Fig.  1S7. — Chain  cultivator  for  use  in  drawing  weevil-infested   squares 
to  center  of  row.      (After  Hunter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

the  same  result  as  the  destruction  of  the  stalks,  by  remov- 
ing the  food-supply  of  the  weevil.  Therefore,  when  the 
worms  appear  in  weevil-injured  fields  late  in  the  season, 
planters  should  not  poison  the  worms,  for  they  will  aid  in  pre- 
venting the  increase  of  weevils,  and  no  further  crop  can  be 
secured. 

Injury  may  be  largely  avoided  by  making  an  early  crop 
before  the  weevils  have  become  sufficiently  abundant  to 
do  serious  damage.  Everything  possible  should,  therefore, 
be  done  to  hasten  early  maturity.  Land  should  be  plowed 
in  winter  and  a  good  seed  bed  prepared.     Plant  as  early  as 


2&i 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


FIELD  CROP  INSECTS  265 

possible  with  safety  from  frost.  A  liberal  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers  will  hasten  maturity.  Only  early  maturing  varie- 
ties should  be  planted,  and  selected  seed  of  open-growing 
sorts  is  to  be  preferred.  Chop  out  the  plants  as  soon  as 
possible.  Frequent  light  cultivation  should  be  given  so  as 
to  keep  the  soil  well  stirred.  Deep  plowing  and  cultivating 
close  to  the  rows  should  be  avoided,  as  it  causes  the  dropping 
of  the  squares. 

When  infested  squares  fall  to  the  ground  and  lie  on  the 
unshaded  hot  soil  the  larvae  or  pupae  within  them  are  soon 
killed  by  the  heat.  As  many  as  40  per  cent  have  been 
found  killed  in  some  fields.  The  rows  should,  therefore,  be 
planted  fairly  wide  apart,  and  varieties  producing  a  mini- 
mum of  shade  are  preferable,  as  are  those  which  readily 
shed  their  squares  when  injured.  As  most  of  the  squares 
drop  beneath  the  plants  where  they  are  shaded,  any  means 
of  scraping  them  into  the  centers  of  the  rows  will  aid  in  their 
destruction.  For  this  purpose  a  chain  cultivator  as  de- 
scribed by  Hunter  (/.  c.)  (Fig.  187),  has  proven  very  effi- 
cient for  this  purpose.  The  chains  may  be  attached  to 
ordinary  cultivators  by  special  attachments.  An  arm  or 
projection  that  will  brush  the  plant  should  be  attached  to 
whatever  cultivator  is  used  so  that  the  squares  will  be 
knocked  to  the  ground,  as  the  effect  of  the  heat  is  greater 
the  earlier  the  squares  drop. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


GARDEN    INSECTS 


145.  Cutworms.  *  The  larvae  of  several  species  of  moths, 
which  are  more  or  less  similar  in  general  appearance  and 
habits  and  which  feed  on  low-growing  vegetation,  cutting 
off  the  stems  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  commonly- 
known  as  Cut-worms.  They 
should  be  distinguished  from 
the  white  grubs  (page  236), 
which  are  often  wrongly 
called  cutworms  on  account 
of  their  similar  habits.  Some 
species  prefer  certain  crops, 
but  most  of  them  are  almost 
omnivorous,  though  most 
injurious  to  garden  crops 
and  to  corn,  cotton,  tobacco 
and  similar  crops  grown  in 
hills  or  rows. 

The  adult  moths  have 
dark  fore  wings,  variously 
marked  with  darker  or  hghter  spots  and  narrow  bands,  as 
illustrated,  and  expand  from  one  to  two  inches.  The  wings 
are  folded  over  the  back  when  at  rest.  Most  of  the  larger, 
dark-colored  moths  which  fly  into  lights  in  summer,  commonly 
called  "moth-millers,"  are  cutworm  moths.  Like  their 
larvae  they  feed  at  night,  sipping  the  nectar  from  flowers. 
*  Family  Noctuidce,  see  page  80. 
266 


Fig.  189.— The  dark -sided  cut- 
worm {Agrotismessoria) .  (After 
Riley.) 


GARDEN  INSECTS 


267 


The  females  lay  their  eggs  on  grass  land  or  where  a  crop  has 
been  allowed  to  grow  up  in  grass  and  weeds  in  late  sammer. 
The  little  larva;  which  hatch  from  these  eggs  in  late  summer 
feed  on  the  roots  of  whatever  vegetation  is  available  until 
frost,  when  they  go  deeper  in  the  soil  and  curl  up  snugly  in 
small  earthen  cells,  where  they  hilDcrnate  until  spring.  They 
then  attack  any  vegetation  with  surprising  voracity,  often 
subsisting  on  grass  and  weeds  which  have  been  turned  under 
until  a  planted  crop  is  available.  They  become  full  grown 
by  late  spring  or  early  summer  and  are  then  from  1|  to  2 
inches  long,  of  a 
dull  brown,  gray 
or  blackish  color, 
often  tinged  with 
greenish,  and  more 
or  less  marked  with 
longitudinal  strips, 
dots  and  oblique 
dashes,  these  mark- 
ings harmonizing  in 
color  with  the  soil. 
They  have  three 
pairs    of  true   legs 

and  five  pairs  of  abdominal  prolegs.  The  larvae  pupate 
in  cells  a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface  and  the  moths 
emerge  during  midsummer  in  the  Central  and  Northern 
States  and  earlier  farther  south.  There  is  usually  only  one 
generation  in  the  North,  but  there  are  commonly  two  and 
sometimes  three  in  the  South. 

It  is  evident  from  their  life  history  that  one  of  the  best 
means  of  control  is  thorough  plowing  and  harrowing  in  late 
fall  and  early  spring,  so  as  to  keep  the  land  fallow  and  thus 
starve  out  the  larvae.     This  is  particularly  true  for  staple 


Fig.     190. — Granulated    cut-worm     (Agrolis 
annexa).     (After  Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 
a,  larva;  /,  pupa;  h,  adult — natural  size. 


268  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

crops,  such  as  cotton,  corn  and  tobacco,  on  which  it  is  expen- 
sive to  use  other  means.  Poisoned  bran  mash  (see  page  329), 
is  an  effective  remedy  for  cutworms,  particularly  in  gardens. 
It  should  be  applied  a  few  days  before  the  plants  are  set  or 
before  the  seed  plants  appear.  Sow  the  mash  broadcast  late 
in  the  afternoon  so  that  it  will  be  moist  when  the  worms  feed 
at  dusk.  Keep  poultry  away  from  fields  so  treated.  Clover 
which  has  been  dipped  in  water  containing  one-third  pound 
of  Paris  green  per  barrel  may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  par- 
ticularly along  borders  of  fields  next  to  grass.  Market  gar- 
deners commonly  protect  plants  by  means  of  tin  cans  from 
which  the  bottoms  have  been  removed  or  by  paper  cylinders, 
which  are  sunk  into  the  soil  around  the  plants.  Garden 
plants  may  sometimes  be  protected  from  cutworms  by  dip- 
ping in  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  to  the  barrel,  when 
setting  them,  as  advised  for  flea  beetles. 

146.  Plant  Lice  or  Aphides.  Almost  every  garden  crop 
is  attacked  by  one  or  more  species  of  plant  lice,  which  mul- 
tiply so  rapidly  that  if  they  are  not  promptly  controlled 
serious  injury  results. 

Cabbage  Aphis  *  (44).  Cabbage,  turnips  and  other 
cruciferous  garden  crops  are  frequently  found  covered  with 
disgusting  gray,  waxy  masses  of  cabbage  aphides.  The  eggs 
of  this  species  are  laid  on  cabbage  during  October  and 
November  and,  in  central  New  York,  hatch  the  next  April. 
Herrick  and  Hungate  observed  twenty-one  generations 
from  early  April  until  December.  During  the  summer  the 
wingless  females  become  full  grown  in  about  two  weeks 
and  live  for  about  forty-six  days,  during  which  time  they 
will  give  birth  to  about  forty  young.  Generations  of 
winged  females  appear,  particularly  on  crowded  plants,  and 
spread  the  pest.  They  live  only  about  ten  days  and  bear 
*  Aphis  brassicoe  Linn.     Family  Aphididop,  see  page  66. 


GARDEN   INSECTS 


269 


from  seven  to  thirteen  young.  The  wingless  female  is 
covered  with  a  grayish  waxy  coat,  the  body  being  a  grayish- 
green,  marked  with  eight  black  spots  down  either  side  of  the 
back.  The  antennae  arc  green  with  black  tips  and  the  eyes, 
legs,  and  tail  are  black.  In  the  South  viviparous  reproduc- 
tion continues  all  winter  and  in  the  North  many,  doubtless, 


Fig.    191. — Cabbage   aphis    {Aphis  hrassicce,   Linn.).     (After  Herrick 
and  Hungate.)     Very  greatly  enlarged. 

survive  the  winter  on  cabbages  stored  in  pits.  The  latter 
might  readily  be  destroyed  by  fumigation. 

Spinach  Aphis.*  This  species  often  becomes  destructive 
to  spinach,  celery,  lettuce,  cabbage  and  various  greenhouse 
crops.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Green  Peach  Aphis,  which 
see  (page  306). 

Pea  Aphis  f  (7).  Large  green  plant-lice  often  become  so 
abundant  on  the  foliage  and  pods  of  garden  peas  as  to  kill 
*  Myzus  persicoe  Sulz.  j  Macrosiphum  pisi  Kalt. 


270  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

the  plants.  They  pass  the  winter  on  clover  and  vetches, 
sometimes  becoming  so  numerous  as  to  do  serious  injury. 
The  winged  females  migrate  to  the  peas  about  the  time  they 
are  six  to  eight  inches  high,  and  give  birth  to  young  which 
develop  into  wingless,  viviparous  females.  Both  wingless  and 
winged  females  occur  throughout  the  season,  the  latter  pre- 
dominating whenever  food  becomes  scarce.  The  winged 
forms  are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  with  wings  ex- 
panding two-fifths  of  an  inch.  The  body 
is  a  pea-green  color,  the  eyes  are  red,  and 
the  legs,  antennae  and  honey-tubes  are 
yellowish  tipped  with  black.  The  wing- 
less females  are  similar,  but  somewhat 
broader.  A  female  becomes  grown  in 
u- "    /Tir    ^^^'      about  eleven  days  after  birth,  lives  about 

aphis      (Macrosi- 

phum  pisi  Kalt).      twenty-five   days,   and   bears   about    50 

Winged  and  wing-  young,  though  sometimes  100  are  born, 

less    viviparous  Sixteen  generations  have  been  observed 

females      and  ,  t»t       i    ^oi         i    /-^       i         ^  i     • 

young— enlarged,  'between  March  23d  and  October  4th  m 

Central  Illinois.  The  best  means  of 
avoiding  injury  by  this  species  is  to  grow  early  varieties. 
Brushing  the  aphides  from  the  vines  with  a  pine  branch  and 
following  with  a  cultivator,  will  destroy  many  of  them  on  a 
hot  summer  day. 

Melon  Aphis  *  (8).  The  melon  aphis  may  be  found  on 
various  weeds  such  as  shepherd's  purse  and  pepper  grass  in 
early  spring  and  on  melons  and  other  cucurbs  soon  after 
they  start  growth.  If  allowed  to  multiply  unchecked  it  will 
often  become  so  abundant  as  to  ruin  a  crop  just  as  the  melons 
are  commencing  to  ripen.  The  wingless  females  are  about 
one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  long,  varying  in  color  from  light  yel- 
low or  tan  to  olive  or  deep  green,  appearing  almost  blackish; 

*  Aphis  gossypii  Glover. 


GARDEN  INSECTS 


271 


the  legs  and  antennse  are  pale  whitish-yellow,  and  the  rather 
long,  tapering  honey-tubes  are  jet  black.  The  winged 
female  has  black  spots  along  the  sides  of  the  abdomen.  In 
the  South  this  species  is  also  a  serious  pest  of  young  cotton. 
No  true  sexual  forms  or  eggs  of  this  species  have  been  ob- 
served, but  reproduction  by  agamic  females  goes  on  through- 


FiG.   193. — The  melon  aphis   (Aphis    gossypii    Glov.).     (After  Chit- 
tenden, U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  winged  female;  aa,  enlarged  antenna  of  same;  ab,  dark  female,  side  view, 
sucking  juice  from  leaf;  b,  young  nymph;  c,  last  stage  of  nymph  of  winged  form; 
d,  wingless  female — greatly  enlarged. 


out  the  summer  as  with  other  aphides,  winged  forms  ap- 
pearing whenever  the  food-plant  becomes  overcrowded. 

Control.  Much  the  same  remedies  may  be  used  for  all  of 
these  species.  Spraying  with  contact  insecticides  will  destroy 
most  of  them,  but  the  aphides  must  be  hit  to  be  killed,  and 
spraying  must  be  done  while  the  plants  are  small  and  before 


272 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


the  foliage  is  curled  by  the  aphides  or  it  will  not  reach  them. 
Kerosene  emulsion  containing  from  5  to  8  per  cent  of  kero- 
sene is  the  oldest  spray,  but  should  be  used  with  caution  on 
melons  and  peas.  Whale  oil  soap,  one  pound  to  six  gallons 
of  water,  is  entirely  safe  and  equally  effective.  "  Black-leaf  " 
extract  of  tobacco  containing  2to  per  cent  of  nicotine  is 
effective  when  applied  one  part  to  65  or  70  of  water.  Prof. 
FrankHn  Sherman,  Jr.,  states  that  any  good  laundry  soap 
used  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  dissolved  in  three  gallons  of 
water  is  effective  against  the  cabbage  aphis.  Where  water 
under  pressure  is  available  in  a  small  garden,  many  species 
may  be  held  in  check  by  washing  with  a  strong  stream  from  a 
garden  hose.  Cabbage  plants  infested  in  the  seed  bed 
should  be  dipped  in  a  soap  solution  when  planted. 

147.  Flea-beetles.*     Almost  all  of  the  common  garden 
crops  are  attacked  by  small  beetles,  which  from  their  power 
of   making    long,   quick  jumps,   are 
\  j  known  as  flea-beetles. 

^.^^T^^Js.  The  Potato  Flea-beetle  f    (45)   at- 

r        ^^^^F       X     tacks     potatcf    and     tomato   plants 
when  they  are  but  a  few  inches  high 
and  often  so  riddles  the  foliage  as  to 
cause  the  plants  to  wilt  and  some- 
times to  necessitate  replanting  toma- 
toes.    It  is  only  one-sixteenth  inch 
long   and   is   jet   black,    except   the 
yellowish   antennae   and    legs.     The 
beetles    hibernate     under     rubbish, 
leaves,  etc.,  and  in  the  spring  come 
forth  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  roots  of  common  weeds  of 
the  nightshade  family,  such  as  the  horse-nettle,  or  "  Jimpson" 
weed,  etc.     The  larvae  mine  in  the  roots  of  these  plants 
*  Family  Chrysomelidae,  see  page  12L         f  Epitrix  cucumeris  Harris. 


Fig.  194.— Potato  flea- 
beetle,  greatly  enlarged 
(After  Chittenden, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


GARDEN  INSECTS 


273 


and  transform  to  pupae  in  earthen  cells  among  the  roots, 
from  which  the  beetles  emerge  to  attack  the  foliage.  The 
larvae  are  very  slender,  elongate,  white  worms.  Occasion- 
ally they  mine  into  the  tubers,  doing  considerable  damage 
and  causing  pimply  potatoes,  as  has  been  observed  in  New 
York  and  Colorado.  There  are  two  or  three  generations 
each  year,  but  the  exact  life  history  has  not  been  fully 
determined. 

The  Tobacco  Flea-beetle  *  (10)  does  similar  damage  to 
the  same  crops  throughout  the  South  as  well  as  to  tobacco 
and  egg  plant.  It  is  a  small  spe- 
cies, one-twentieth  inch  long,  light 
brown  in  color  with  a  dark  band 
across  the  wing-covers. 

Bordeaux  mixture  forms  an 
excellent  repellent  for  these  little 
beetles.  Potatoes  and  tomatoes 
should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  for  the  control  of  fun- 
gous diseases,  and  arsenate  of 
lead  or  Paris  green  for  the  Colo- 
rado potato  beetle  as  soon  as 
they  are  six  inches  high.  The 
spray  should  be  applied  liberally 
so  as  thoroughly  to  coat  the 
plants.  Tomatoes  are  more  sus- 
ceptible to  injury  and  may  well 
be  dipped  in  arsenate  of  lead,  one 
pound  to  ten  gallons  of  water,  when  planting.  The  destruc- 
tion of  the  weeds  upon  which  the  larvae  commonly  de- 
velop is  obviously  important  in  preventing  their  multi- 
plication. 

*  Epitrix  parvu!a  Fab. 


Fig.  195.  —  Tobacco  flea- 
beetle  {Epitrix  parvula). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  adult  beetle;  b,  larva,  lateral 
view;  /,  pupa  —  enlarged  about 
fifteen  times. 


274 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Two  other  species  with  very  similar  habits  are  the  Pale- 
striped  Flea-beetle  *  and  the  Banded  Flea-beetle. '\  They  often 
appear  in  enormous  numbers  and  seem  ahnost  omnivorous 
in  their  food-habits,  being  particularly  injurious  to  young 
corn  and  tomatoes,  but  also  attacking  beans,  beets,  pota- 
toes, egg  plant,  melons,  crucifers,  and  almost  all  garden 
crops.  The  pale-striped  flea-beetle  is  about  one-eighth  inch 
long,    cream  colored,  with   the   wing-covers   marked   with 


Fig.  196. — The  pale-striped  flea- 
beetle  {Systena  blanda  Mels.). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 

a,  larva;  b,  beetle — much  enlarged. 


Fig.  197. — The  striped  turnip 
flea-beetle  (Phyllotrela  vittata 
Fab.).    (After  Riley,  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.) 
a,  larva;  6,  adult — -greatly  enlarged. 


three  stripes  of  light  brown  and  the  eyes  and  abdomen  are 
black.  The  banded  flea-beetle  is  very  similar,  but  the  dark 
stripes  are  expanded  and  darker,  so  that  it  appears  to  be  a 
polished  black  with  two  white  stripes.  Their  habits  and  life 
history  are  very  similar  to  the  preceding  species  so  far  as 
known.  They  are  best  controlled  by  thoroughly  spraying 
the  affected  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture  containing  three 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  barrel.  Powdered  arsenate 
of  lead  dusted  over  the  plants  will  doubtless  be  effective. 
*  Systena  blanda  Melsh  f  Systena  tceniata  Say. 


GARDEN  INSECTS 


275 


A  number  of  species  attack  cabbage  and  other  cruciferous 
crops.  The  Striped  Turnip  Flea-beetle,*  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon, is  polished  black  with  each  wing-cover  marked  with  a 
broad  wav}^  band  of  pale  yellow.  The  small  white  larvae 
have  sometimes  injured  the  roots  of  cabbage  and  turnips, 
but  probably  they  usually  feed  on  the  roots  of  cruciferous 
weeds.  Where  the  plants 
are  sprayed  properly  for  the 
cabbage  worms  there  will 
usually  be  little  trouble  with 
flea-beetles.  Otherwise, 
spray  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
three  to  five  pounds  to  the 
barrel,  or  dust  with  pow- 
dered arsenate  of  lead. 
Where  injury  is  anticipated 
it  will  be  well  to  dip  the 
plants,  as  advised  above  for 
tomatoes.  Where  plants 
are  attacked  in  the  seed- 
bed, screening  tightly  with 
cheesecloth  is  advised.  By 
thoroughly  dusting  the 
plants  with  air-slaked  lime, 
land  plaster,  tobacco  dust, 
ashes,  or  any  similar  dusts,  applying  them  in  the  early 
morning  while  the  dew  is  on  the  plants,  they  may  be  pro- 
tected as  long  as  they  are  kept  thoroughly  covered. 

The  Spinach  Flea-beetle  f  is  a  larger  species,  one-fourth 
inch  long,  and  is  commonly  injurious  to  beets  and  spinach. 
It  is  shining  black  with  a  greenish  or  bluish  luster,  the  pro- 
thorax  and  abdomen  are  red  or  reddish-yellow,  and  the  legs 

*  Phyllotreta  vittata  Fab.  f  Disonycha  xanthomeloena  Dalm. 


b 

Fig.  198.— The  spinach  flea-beetle 
(Disonycha  xanthoineloEna  Dalm.). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 

a,  beetle;  6,  egg  mass;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa 
— five  times  natural  size. 


276 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


and  antennae  are  pale  yellowish.  The  larvae  feed  on  the 
foliage  and  pupate  in  the  earth.  The  second  generation  is 
usually  the  most  injurious  in  late  summer.  This  species  is 
readily  controlled  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

148.  Colorado  Potato  Beetle.*  The  Colorado  potato 
beetle  (11),  is  now  so  well  known  that  it  hardly  needs  descrip- 
tion, although  in  many  parts  of  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  Coast 


Fig.  199. — The  Colorado  potato-beetle  {LeptinotarsadecemlineataSay.). 

(After  Riley.) 

a,  eggs-    b,  larva;    c,  pupa;    d,  beetle;    e,  elytra  or  wing-cover  of  beetle;   /,  leg 
of  beetle. 


States  it  does  little  if  any  injury.  The  adult  beetles  pass 
the  winter  in  the  earth,  where  they  hibernate  until  spring 
sunshine  brings  them  forth.  As  soon  as  the  young  potato 
plants  appear  the  females  deposit  their  yellow  eggs  in  masses 
on  the  foliage,  each  laying  about  500  in  the  course  of  a 
month.  At  the  same  time  the  beetles  are  doing  considerable 
damage  by  eating  the  young  plants,  sometimes  attacking 
both  potato  and  tomato  plants  in  such  numbers  as  to  destroy 
*  Leptinotarsa  decemlineata  Say.     Family  Chrysomelidce. 


GARDEN  INSECTS  277 

them.  As  a  rule,  tomatoes  are  not  so  much  injured  later  in 
the  season. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  from  four  to  seven  days  and  the  young 
grubs  gorge  themselves  on  the  tender  foliage,  increasing  in 
size  with  astonishing  rapidity  and  becoming  full  grown  in 
about  three  weeks.  The  grubs  then  enter  the  soil  and  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface  hollow  out  cells  in  which  they  trans- 
form to  pupae,  from  which  the  adult  beetles  emerge  in  one  or 
two  weeks.  Thus,  in  summer,  the  whole  life  cycle  requires 
from  four  to  six  weeks.  After  feeding  a  few  days  the  new 
beetles  deposit  eggs  which  give  rise  to  a  second  generation 
of  grubs.  These  transform,  in  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed, into  the  beetles  which  hibernate.  Through  the 
Middle  States,  where  most  injury  is  done,  there  are  two  gen- 
erations a  year,  but  in  the  South  there  may  be  three  genera- 
tions and  in  the  North  there  is  but  one. 

When  the  young  plants  are  attacked  by  the  old  beetles, 
they  should  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  5  pounds  to  50 
gallons.  Potatoes  should  always  be  sprayed  about  every 
two  weeks  with  Bordeaux  mixture  for  the  control  of  diseases 
and  if  this  is  done,  the  potato  beetle  may  be  easily  controlled 
by  adding  a  half  pound  of  Paris  green  or  three  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead  to  each  barrel,  for  the  first  two  or  three 
sprayings.  Paris  green  is  often  dusted  on  the  vines,  usually 
mixed  with  50  times  its  weight  of  flour,  land  plaster  or  air- 
slaked  lime,  and  applied  while  the  plants  are  wet  with  dew. 
However,  dusting  is  more  expensive  and  less  efficient  than 
spraying,  except  where  peculiar  local  conditions  make  spray- 
ing impracticable,  and  burning  of  foliage  often  results,  par- 
ticularly when  the  dust  is  carelessly  applied. 

Cleaning  up  the  vines  and  plowing  potato  land  in  the 
fall  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  dug  will  aid  in  reducing  the  num- 
bers of  the  hibernating  beetles. 


278 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


149.  Tomato  Worms.  The  most  common  caterpillars 
injurious  to  tomatoes  are  the  large  Horn-worms,  which  also 
affect  tobacco  (10).  Two  species  *  are  common,  one  being 
more  abundant  in  the  North  and  the  other  in  the  South,  but 
they  are  very  similar  both  in  appearance  and  habits.  The 
full-grown  larvse  are  about  three  inches  long,  of  a  dark  green 


Fig.   200. — Northern   tobacco-worm,  or   "hornworm"    (Phlegethontius 
quinquemaculata).     (After  Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 
o,  adult  moth;  b,  full-grown  larva;  c,  pupa — slightly  reduced. 

color  with  white  stripes  on  the  side  of  the  body,  those  on  the 
northern  species  being  a  V-shape,  while  the  Southern  species 
has  simple  oblique  bands.  At  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  a 
stout  horn  which  gives  them  the  name  "horn-worms." 
The  larvae  become  grown  in  about  three  weeks,  when  they 

*  Phlegethontius    quinquemaculata    Haworth     (Northern),     familj* 
Sphingidoe,  see  page  89  and  P.  sexto  Johansenn  (Southern). 


GARDEN  INSECTS  279 

pupate  in  the  soil,  the  pupjB  being  commonly  called  ''horn- 
blowers."  The  adult  moths  emerge  about  three  weeks  later 
during  midsummer.  In  the  tobacco  belt  there  are  two  gen- 
erations a  year,  but  in  the  North  there  is  but  a  single  genera- 
tion and  in  the  Gulf  States  there  may  be  three.  The  adult 
is  a  large  gray  moth,  marked  with  black,  white  and  yellow, 
with  a  wing  expanse  of  about  five  inches  and  may  often  be 
seen  gathering  nectar  from  petunias  and  similar  flowers. 
From  their  size  and  flight  they  are  often  called  "humming- 
bird moths."  The  large  caterpillars  rag  the  foliage  of  toma- 
toes or  tobacco  and  will  quickly  do  considerable  damage. 
When  carried  into  the  barn  they  sometimes  injure  tobacco 
as  it  dries.  On  small  patches  the  easiest  method  of  control 
is  hand-picking.  Tomatoes  should  always  be  sprayed  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  for  diseases  and  other 
insects,  which  treatment  will  also  control  these  larvie. 
Tobacco  and  tomatoes  which  have  not  been  so  sprayed 
should  be  dusted  with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  (12),  diluted 
with  at  least  an  equal  bulk  of  dry  wood  ashes,  applying  3j 
to  five  pounds  per  acre.  Or  it  may  be  used  as  a  spray,  two 
pounds  to  the  barrel.  (See  page  253  for  Tomato  Fruit- 
worm.) 

150.  Striped  Cucumber-beetle.*  The  httle  yellow  bee- 
tles with  black  heads  and  three  black  stripes  on  the  wing- 
covers,  which  appear  just  as  the  young  melon  and  cucumber 
plants  are  up,  are  known  to  every  gardener.  They  swarm 
over  the  plants  and  very  frequently  are  so  numerous  as  to 
necessitate  replanting. 

The  beetles  hibernate  over  winter  and  emerge  two  or 
three  weeks  before  cucurbs  are  up,  during  which  time  they 
feed  on  various  flowers.  After  feeding  on  the  young  melon 
plants  for  a  few  days  the  females  commence  to  deposit  their 

*  Diabrotica  vittata  Fab.     Family  Chrysomelidoe,  see  page  121. 


280 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


eggs  in  crevices  of  the  soil.  During  a  month  a  female  will 
lay  100  eggs,  which  hatch  in  a  week  to  ten  days.  The  larva 
is  a  slender,  white,  worm-like  grub  about  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long,  with  a  dark  head  and  anal  plate.  They  bore 
into  the  cucurb  roots,  often  tunneling  into  the  base  of  the 
stem,  and  sometimes  mine  into  melons  lying  on  damp  soil. 
Injury  to  the  roots  is  rarely  very  serious,  though  occasionally 
cucumber  and  melon  vines  are  killed.     The  larvae  become 


Fig.    201. — The    striped    cucumber   beetle    (Diabrotica   vittata   Fab.). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 
a,  beetle;  6,  larva;  c,  pupa;  much  enlarged. 

full  grown  in  about  a  month,  when  they  transform  to  pupae 
in  small,  earthen  cells,  from  which  the  beetles  emerge  in  one 
to  two  weeks.  In  New  England  there  is  but  one  generation 
a  year,  the  new  beetles  appearing  in  early  fall,  but  in  the 
Middle  States  there  are  two  generations,  the  first  appearing 
about  midsummer. 

A  few  plants  may  be  protected  from  the  beetles  by  covers 
of  netting.  A  barrel  hoop  cut  in  two  and  crossed  and  the 
ends  fastened  to  another  hoop  makes  a  good  frame.  Cone- 
shaped  covers  of  wire  screening  may  be  made  and  kept  from 


GARDEN  INSECTS  281 

year  to  year.  Manj^  growers  sow  the  seed  in  rows  rather 
thickly  and  then  thin  out  to  the  desired  distance  after  the 
worst  injury  is  over.  Others  make  several  plantings  in  each 
hill  at  intervals  of  a  week,  but  the  former  plan  will  ensure 
earlier  growth.  Plants  may  be  protected  by  keeping  them 
well  covered  with  almost  any  sort  of  dust,  which  must  be 
applied  to  both  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  leaves  while 
the  dew  is  on.  This  must  be  repeated  as  the  dust  is  blown 
or  washed  off  and  as  the  plant  grows.  Air-slaked  lime  mixed 
with  sulphur,  and  tobacco  dust,  have  been  found  beneficial. 
Bordeaux  mixture  repels  the  beetles,  but  seems  to  have  a 
stunting  effect  on  the  young  plants.  Thorough  spraying  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  three  to  five  pounds  per  barrel,  seems  to  repel 
the  beetles  better  than  any  other  substance.  Possibly  dust- 
ing with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  would  be  as  satisfactor3^ 
Cleaning  up  and  destroying  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  crop  is 
gathered  will  deprive  the  beetles  of  food  and  force  them  to 
seek  other  hibernating  places,  thus  increasing  the  mortality. 
151.  Squash  Bugs.*  Where  leaves  of  squash  and  melon 
vines  are  found  to  be  wilting  here  and  there  just  as  they 
are  commencing  to  run,  a  careful  examination  will  usually 
reveal  the  presence  of  a  slate-colored  bug  (13),  about  three- 
fourths  inch  long,  the  common  squash  bug.  At  night  or  early 
in  the  morning  the  bugs  are  usually  found  beneath  rubbish 
or  clods  of  earth.  The  brownish  eggs  are  laid  in  character- 
istic masses  on  the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  and  hatch 
in  from  one  to  two  weeks.  The  young  bugs  are  brilliantly 
colored,  the  antennae  and  legs  being  bright  crimson,  the  head 
and  anterior  thorax  a  lighter  crimson,  and  the  posterior 
thorax  and  abdomen  a  bright  green,  but  in  a  little  while  the 
crimson  changes  to  jet  black.  They  become  full  grown  in 
four  or  five  weeks.  In  the  North  there  is  but  a  single  gener- 
*  Anasa  tristis  DeG.     Family  Coreidce,  see  page  59. 


282 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


ation  and  the  adults  hibernate,  but  in  the  South  there  are 
two  or  three  generations. 

The  eggs  are  readily  seen  and  may  be  picked  off  and  de- 
stroyed.    The  adults  are  sucking  insects  and   cannot  be 

killed  by  insecticides,  but 
may  be  collected  in  early 
morning  from  beneath 
small  boards  and  other 
rubbish  used  as  traps. 
The  nymphs  may  be  killed 
by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion.  Cucumbers 
and  melons  may  be  pro- 
tected by  planting  early 
squash  among  them,  as 
the  bugs  prefer  the  squash 
vines  and  may  be  col- 
lected from  them.  Clean- 
ing up  the  vines  in  the 
fall  is  of  importance  in 
reducing  the   number  which  will  hibernate. 

152.  Cabbage  Caterpillars.  Impcrted  Cabbage  Worm  * 
(14).  One  of  our  most  common  garden  pests  is  the  well- 
known  cabbage  worm,  whose  parent  is  the  common  white 
cabbage  butterfly.  It  was  imported  from  Europe  into 
Quebec  about  1860,  and  has  since  spread  to  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  butterflies  are  among  the  first  to  emerge  in 
the  spring.  The  females  may  be  distinguished  by  having 
two  black  spots  on  each  fore  wing,  while  the  males  have  but 
one.  Both  sexes  have  the  tips  of  the  fore  wings  and  a  spot 
on  the  front  margin  of  the  hind  wings  black.  Eggs  are  laid 
by  the  females  as  soon  as  the  food  plant  is  available,  and 
*  Ponlia  rapce  Linn.     P^amily  Pieridoe,  see  page  98. 


Fig.  202.— The  squash-bug.     (After 
Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  mature  female;  6,  side  view  of  head, 
showing  beak;  c,  abdominal  segments  of 
male;  d,  same  of  female;  o,  twice  natural 
size;   b,  c,  d,  more  enlarged. 


GARDEN   INSECTS 


283 


hatch  in  four  to  eight  days.  The  eggs  are  yellowish,  prom- 
inently ridged  and  laid  singly  on  end.  The  larvai  gorge 
themselves  on  the  foliage  and  grow  rapidly,  becoming  full 
grown  in  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  When  mature  they 
are  about  H  inches  long,  of  a  velvety  green  color,  very  sim- 


FiG.  203. — The  cabbage  butterfly  {Pontia  rapw).     (After  Chittenden, 

r.  S.  bept.  Agr.) 

a,  female  butterfly;  h,  above,  egg  as  seen  from  above;  below,  egg  as  seen  from 
side;  c,  larva  in  natural  position  on  cabbage  leaf;  d,  suspended  chrysalis — o,  c, 
d,  slightly  enlarged;  6,  more  enlarged. 

ilar  to  the  foliage,  with  a  faint  yellow  stripe  down  the  middle 
of  the  back  and  a  row  of  3'ellow  spots  on  each  side.  The 
chrj'salis  or  pupa  is  attached  to  the  leaf  by  a  strand  of  silk 
and  is  at  first  greenish  and  then  light  brown  in  color.  In 
the  smnmer  the  butterflies  emerge  from  the  chrysalids  in 
one  to  two  weeks,  but  the  chrysalids  of  the  last  generation 


284 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


hibernate  among  the  old  stalks  and  rubbish  in  the  fields. 
In  New  England  there  are  three  generations  and  in  the 
South  probably  five  or  six. 

Southern  Cabbage  Butterfly.*      Before  the  appearance  of 
the  imported  species  this  was  the  more  common  in  the  South 

but  has  now  been  largely 
\  /  ^-.-^-^irm^  replaced.  The  male 
butterfly  is  very  similar 
to  the  female  of  the 
former  species  in  gen- 
eral appearance,  but  the 
female  is  much  more 
heavily  marked  w4th 
black.  The  caterpillar 
is  a  greenish-blue  color 
with  four  longitudinal, 
yellow  stripes  and  cov- 
ered with  black  dots. 
The  habits  are  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  last 
species. 

Cabbage  Looker.]  The 
cabbage  looper  strips  the 
foliage  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  former  species.  It  is  so  called  on 
account  of  its  "looping"  habit  of  walking,  like  that  of  a 
measuring-worm,  due  to  the  absence  of  legs  on  the  third 
and  fourth  abdominal  segments.  The  larvse  are  pale  to  dark 
green  in  color,  marked  with  several  longitudinal  white  lines 
and  might  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  imported  cabbage 
worm  were  it  not  for  their  looping  gait.     Cabbage  and  cauli- 

*  Pontia  protodice  Boisd.     Family  Pieridoe,  see  page  98. 

t  Autographa  brassicce  Riley.     Family  Noctuidce,  see  page  8L 


Fig.  204. — The  Southern  cabbage  but- 
terfly {Pontia  protodice  Boisd.).  (After 
Riley.) 

a,  male;  6,  female. 


GARDEN  INSECTS 


285 


flower  are  the  favorite  food-plants,  but  lettuce,  peas,  celery, 
beets  and  various  other  garden  crops  and  weeds  are  often 
attacked.  Injury  to  cabbage  seems  to  be  worse  in  late 
summer.  The  full-grown  larva  spins  a  very  thin  trans- 
parent white  cocoon  on 
the  leaf  where  it  has  been 
feeding  and  in  it  trans- 
forms to  the  pupa  from 
which  the  moth  emerges 
in  from  one  to  two  weeks 
in  summer.  The  pupae 
of  the  last  generation 
hibernate.  The  moth 
has  a  wing  expanse  of 
about  Ij  inches.  The 
fore  wings  are  grayish- 
brown  mottled  with  white 
and  black,  and  just  in- 
side the  center  is  a  char- 
acteristic white  spot.  A 
prominent  tuft  arises 
from  the  thorax  when 
the  moth  is  at  rest. 

Control.  Spraying  or  dusting  with  arsenate  of  lead  is  the 
most  satisfactory  remedy  for  all  of  these  caterpillars.  This 
should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set,  and  they 
should  be  kept  well  covered  until  the  heads  are  half  formed. 
If  this  is  done  the  young  larvae  will  be  killed  before  they  bur- 
row into  the  heads  and  there  will  be  but  little  danger  from 
them  later.  Plants  should  not  be  dusted  with  large  quan- 
tities of  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  after  the  heads  are 
well  formed,  nor  is  there  an}^  occasion  for  this.  Various 
contact  insecticides  will  kill  these  caterpillars,  but  their  use 


Fig.  205. — The  cabbage  looper  (Auto- 
grapha  brassicce  Riley).  (After  How- 
ard and  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 

a,  male  moth;  b,  egg  from  above  and  from 
side;  c,  full-grown  larva  in  natural  position 
feeding;  d,  pupa  in  cocoon — natural  size;  b, 
enlarged. 


286  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

necessitates  hitting  each  one,  which  is  often  difficult,  and 
they  have  not  been  found  as  satisfactory  as  poisons.  As 
the  pupae  usually  pass  the  winter  on  the  old  stumps  and 
fohage  it  is  evident  that  they  and  all  rubbish  should  be 
destroyed  and  the  field  plowed  as  soon  after  the  crop  is 
removed  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
ORCHARD    INSECTS 

153.  The   San  Jose   Scale   and   Other   Scale   Insects. 

Probably  no  one  insect  has  clone  such  widespread  injury  to 
orchard  trees  as  the  San  Jose  Scale.*  (2).  The  injury  is 
often  due  to  the  fact  that  its  presence  is  not  suspected  until 
the  tree  is  badly  damaged.  The  trunk  and  branches  of 
badly  affected  trees  have  a  rough  grayish  appearance  as  if 
covered  with  ashes.  By  scraping  the  surface  the  soft,  juicy, 
yellowish  insects  will  be  revealed  beneath  the  covering 
scales.  The  scales  may  most  readily  be  detected  on  the 
fruit  and  leaves,  on  which  a  bright  red  ring  appears  around 
each  scale.  If  a  single  female  insect  is  examined,  for  which 
a  magnifying  glass  will  be  needed,  it  is  found  to  be  covered 
by  a  small  grayish-black,  circular  scale.  Beneath  this  scale 
may  be  seen  a  small,  soft,  oval,  orange-colored  object, 
looking  very  little  like  an  insect,  which  is  the  female;  the 
scale  being  merely  a  waxy  covering.  The  male  scale  is 
smaller  and  somewhat  elongated. 

When  the  males  become  fully  developed  they  transform 
into  small  two-winged  flies.  In  late  spring  they  emerge  at 
night  and  fly  to  the  females.  A  month  later  the  females 
commence  to  give  birth  to  live  young,  which  look  like  tiny 
yellow  mites.  They  crawl  around  for  a  few  hours  and  then 
stick  their  mouth-parts  into  the  bark  and  their  scales  form 
over  them.  They  become  full  grown  in  about  a  month  and 
there  are  several  generations  in  a  year,  so  that  a  tree  with 

*  Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comst.     Family  Coccida;,  see  page  64. 

287 


288 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


Fig.  206. — San  Jose  scale.     (After  Quaintance,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  adult  female  scale;  h,  male  scale;  r,  youna  scales;  d,  larva  just  hatched; 
d',  same,  much  enlarged;  e,  scale  removed,  showing  body  of  female  beneath;  /, 
body  of  female  insect,  more  enlarged;  g,  adult  male  of  the  San  Jose  scale. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


289 


but  few  scales  in  the  spring  may  be  covered  by  them  in  the 
fall.  Badly  infested  trees  die  in  a  year  or  two.  All  of  our 
common  orchard  trees  are  subject  to  attack. 

This  pest  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  while  the  trees 
are  dormant.  This  will  be  more  effective  if  they  have  been 
pruned  and  headed  in  and  the  rough  bark  scraped  from 
the  trunks  and  limbs. 
Every  scale  must  be 
hit  to  be  killed,  so 
that  every  bit  of  the 
tree  must  be  thor- 
oughly covered. 
Lime-sulphur  mixture 
seems  to  be  the  best 
spray,  as  it  also  de- 
stroys various  fun- 
gous diseases  and 
some  insects'  eggs. 
Miscible  oils  are  also 
used  extensively  and 
have  a  certain  advan- 
tage on  hairy  apple 
shoots  and  on  badly 
infested  trees,  as  they 
are  more  penetrating. 
They  are  used  diluted 
ten  or  twelve  times 
for  winter  spraying.  Kerosene  or  crude  oil  emulsion,  con- 
taining 20  to  25  per  cent  of  oil,  is  also  satisfactorily  used. 
The  best  tune  to  spray  is  just  after  the  trees  have  dropped 
their  foliage  in  the  fall  and  in  the  spring  while  the  buds  are 
swelling,  but  before  the  foliage  appears.  No  summer  spray 
has  yet  been  tried  which  more  than  checks  the  development 


a        V        ft  h 

Fig.  207. — The   oyster-shell    scale    {Lepi- 
dosaphes  ulmi  Linn.).     (After  Howard.) 

a,  female  scales  on  twig;  6,  female  scale  from 
above;  c,  same  from  below  showing  eggs;  d,  male 
scale — enlarged. 


290 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


of  the  scale,  for  sprays  which  will  kill  all  the  scales  usually 
injure  the  foliage. 

Another  scale  insect  very  common  on  old  apple  trees  and 
also  on  a  number  of  shade  and  forest  trees,  particularly 
maple  and  poplar,  is  the  Oyster-shell  Scale  *  (3),  so  called 
on  account  of  its  oyster-shell  shape.  The  mature  female 
scale  is  about  one-eighth  inch  long,  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
shaped  as  shown  in  Fig.  207.  The 
male  scale  is  much  smaller.  This 
species  is  not  so  injurious,  but  not 
infrequently    stunts    or   kills   young 

(.■a  Jy  fruit  and  shade  trees.      It  is  essen- 

l^y^  tially  different  from  the  last  species 

in  its  life  history,  as  the  females  lay 
eggs  beneath  the  old  scales,  under 
which  the  eggs  pass  the  winter.  They 
hatch  in  late  spring  or  early  summer 
shortly  after  apple  blossoms  drop 
and  the  subsequent  development  is 
much  the  same,  but  there  is  only  one 
generation  a  season  in  the  North 
and  two  in  the  South.  The  same 
sprays  may  be  used  against  this  spe- 
cies as  advised  for  the  San  Jose  scale, 
but  they  should  be  applied  just  before 
the  buds  burst  in  the  spring.  If  this 
has  been  neglected,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  contain- 
ing 15  per  cent  kerosene,  or  miscible  oils  diluted  25  to  30 
times,  just  as  the  eggs  are  hatching. 

Another  species  fairly  common  on  apple,  pear,  and  other 
orchard  trees,  but  rarely  doing  much  injury,  is  the  Scurfy 
Scale,  t     The  female  is  a  dirty-gray  color  shaped  as  shown  in 
*  Lepidosaphes  ulmi  Linn.  j  Chionaspis  furfura  Fitch. 


Tin.  208.— The  scurfy 
scale  {Chinoas  pis  fur- 
fura Fitch).  (After 
Howard,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) 

a,  females;    b,    males — 
natural  size. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


291 


Fig.  208,  while  the  male  scale  is  much  smaller,  snowy 
white,  and  with  three  distinct  ridges.  The  life  history  is 
similar  to  the  last  species  and  it  is  controlled  by  the  same 
means. 

154.  The  Fruit-tree  Bark-beetle.*  The  fruit-tree  bark- 
beetle  (4,  41),  is  often  known  as  the  "shot-hole  borer"  from 
the  fact  that  an  affected  tree  looks  as  if  it  had  been  struck 
with  a  charge  of  bird  shot.  More  or  less  gum  often  exudes 
from  these  holes  on  stone  fruits.  Injury  is  largely  due  to 
allowing  dead  and  dying  trees  to  stand  in  or  near  the  orchard. 


a  he  d 

Fig.    209. — The    fruit-tree    bark-beetle    (Scolytus    rugulosus).     (After 
Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  b,  beetle;  c,  pupa;  d,  larva — enlarged. 

as  such  trees  are  most  subject  to  attack,  and  healthy  trees  are 
not  usually  injured  in  well-cared-for  orchards.  The  holes 
are  caused  by  the  exit  of  the  small  parent  beetles  and  the 
entrance  of  the  females  to  lay  their  eggs.  The  beetle  is 
about  one-tenth  inch  long,  and  of  a  black  color,  except  the 
tips  of  the  wing-covers  and  parts  of  the  legs,  which  are  red. 
The  beetles  emerge  in  the  spring.  Between  the  bark 
and  the  sap-wood  the  females  eat  out  small  burrows  along 
the  sides  of  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  larvae  excavate 
little  side-galleries  which  branch  out  and  widen  as  they  in- 
crease in  size.  They  become  full  grown  in  about  three 
*  Scolytus  rugulosus  Eatz.     Family  Scolytidce,  see  page  127. 


292 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


weeks,  when  they  form  cells  at  the  end  of  their  burrows  and 
transform  to  pupae,  from  which  the  adult  beetles  emerge 
and  eat  their  way  out  through  the  bark  about  a  week  later. 
The  destruction  of  all  dead  and  diseased  wood  and  the 
burning  of  prunings  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  control 
of  this  pest.  Affected  trees  should 
be  liberally  fertilized  so  that 
they  may  better  withstand  in- 
jury. The  best  means  of  pre- 
venting the  beetles  from  laying 
their  eggs  seems  to  be  to  white- 
wash the  trees  in  early  spring, 
again  in  mid-summer,  and  again 
in  October.  Use  a  good  thick 
whitewash  and  add  one-fourth 
pound  of  common  salt  or  Portland 
cement  to  each  pailful  to  make 
it  more  adhesive. 

155.  Apple-tree     Borers. 
Young    apple    and    quince    or- 
chards are  often  seriously  injured 
by  the   Round-headed  Apple-tree 
borers  *  which   burrow  into  the 
heart  wood  and  often  girdle  the 
trees.     Their  presence    may    be 
detected  by  the  retarded  growth 
of  the  trees,  a  yellowing  of  the 
foliage,  the  sawdust  castings  at  the  entrance  of  the  bur- 
rows,   and   the   discolored    bark    over    the   burrows,  from 
which  sap  sometimes    exudes.     Injury   is   most    severe  in 

*  Saperda  Candida  Fab.      Family  Cerambyddce,  see  page   120  and 
No.  40a,  Appendix  A. 


Fig.  210.— Work  of  the  fruit- 
tree  bark-beetle,  showing 
the  main  galleries,  the  side 
or  larval  galleries,  and  the 
pupal  cells.  (After  Ratze- 
burg.) 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


293 


neglected  and  stunted  orchards  where  grass  and  weeds  are 
allowed  to  grow  up. 

The  adults  are  handsome  beetles  about  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  long  with  long  antennae,  silvery  white  beneath  and 
light  brown  above  marked  with  two  white  stripes.  The 
females  emerge  from  late  May  to  mid-July  and  lay  their 


Fig.  211. — The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer  {Superda  Candida  Fab.) 
larva,  adults,  and  exit  hole — natural  size.  (After  Rumsey  and 
Brooks.) 


eggs  in  the  bark  of  the  trees.  The  larvse  hatch  out  two  or 
three  weeks  later  and  feed  on  the  sap-wood  just  under  the 
bark,  working  down  toward  the  base  of  the  tree.  The  next 
year  the  larvae  work  in  the  sap-wood  and  the  third  season 
they  penetrate  into  the  heart-wood  and  will  often  riddle  a 
small  tree  with  their  cylindrical  bm-rows.     The  third  spring 


294  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

the  larvae  transform  to  pupse  from  which  the  beetles  later 
emerge,  leaving  large  round  holes  in  the  bark.  The  full- 
grown  larva  is  a  whitish-yellow  grub  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long,  legless,  with  the  body  segments  strongly  con- 
stricted. 

The  females  may  be  prevented  from  egg-laying  by  wrap- 
ping the  trunks  of  the  trees  with  wire-netting,  building 
paper,  or  wood  veneer.  Paper  or  wood  wrappings  should  be 
applied  about  May  1st  and  removed  in  late  summer.  These 
wrappings  should  be  tied  tightly  to  the  tree  just  below  the 
crotch  and  should  extend  into  the  soil.  If  wire  netting  is 
used  it  should  be  held  well  out  from  the  trunk  by  a  layer  of 
cotton  at  the  upper  end.  Painting  the  trunks  with  a  thick 
soap  solution  to  every  ten  gallons  of  which  has  been  added 
a  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  is  said  to  prevent  the  beetles 
from  laying  their  eggs.  Others  advise  a  thick  whitewash 
to  which  a  little  cement  has  been  added,  or  a  paint  made  of 
pure  white  lead  and  linseed  oil.  Such  washes  should  be 
applied  by  the  middle  of  May  and  as  often  thereafter  as 
may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  bark  well  covered.  Where 
the  borers  have  gotten  into  the  heart  of  the  tree  it  is  difficult 
to  cut  them  out  without  damaging  the  tree,  but  they  may 
sometimes  be  reached  by  injecting  a  little  carbon-bisulphide 
into  the  burrow  and  stopping  the  opening  with  mud.  Some- 
times a  girdled  tree  may  be  saved  by  bridge-grafting. 

The  Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer  *  is  more  common  and 
prefers  weakened  or  diseased  trees.  The  larva  is  about  one 
inch  long  and  the  thorax  is  very  broadly  expanded  so  as  to 
look  like  the  head,  which  gives  it  the  name  of  flat-headed 
borer.  The  larvae  work  just  beneath  the  bark  where  they 
hollow  out  broad  fiat  channels,  which  may  be  detected  by 
the  discoloration  of  the  bark.     The  larvae  become  full  grown 

*  Chrysobothris  femorata  Fab.     Family  Buprestidce,  see  page  115. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


295 


in  a  single  year  and  leave  the  trees  in  early  summer  through 
elliptical  exit  holes.  The  adult  beetle  is  about  one-half  inch 
long,  of  a  dull  metallic-brown  color  above,  under  the  wing- 
covers  bright  metallic  greenish-blue,  and  the  wing-covers 
taper  sharply  at  the  tip.  The  beetles  are  active  in  the  day 
and  may  often  be  found  on  logs  or  trees. 

Injury  by  this  species  is  not  so  common  if  trees  are  kept 
in  a  healthy  condition,  but  where  it  occurs  it  may  be  com- 
bated the  same  as  the 
round-headed  borer  ex- 
cept that  the  washes 
should  be  applied  higher 
on  the  trunks  and  on 
the  lower  limbs  as  far 
as  they  can  be  reached. 

156.  The  Woolly 
Apple-aphis.*  The 
woolly  apple-aphis  will 
be  found  clustered  in 
bluish-white,  cottony 
masses,  looking  like 
patches  of  mold,  on  the 

smaller  apple  twigs,  particularly  water-sprouts,  and  around 
wounds  or  scars  on  the  trunk  or  limbs.  Their  presence 
in  these  places  is  usually  m  indication  that  others  are  upon 
the  roots  where  they  cause  gall-like  swelhngs  so  that  the 
roots  soon  become  a  mass  of  knots  and  die  in  a  year  or  two 
if  the  injury  continues.  When  badly  infected  a  tree  becomes 
sickly,  the  foliage  turns  yellow,  and  if  not  killed  outright,  it 
falls  an  easy  prey  to  borers  and  other  pests. 

In  the  spring  the  aphides  found  on  the  roots  and  under 
bits  of  bark  on  the  trunk  are  those  which  have  successfully 

*  Eriosoma  lanigera  Hausm.     Family  Aphididos,  see  page  66. 


Fig.  212.— The  flat-headed  apple-tree 
borer  {Chrysobothris  femorala  Fab.). 
(After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  larva;  6,  beetle;  c,  head  of  male;   d,  pupa 
— twice  natural  size. 


296 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


hibernated  there  over  winter.  As  the  foliage  appears  the 
root  aphides  migrate  to  the  new  wood  and  upward  to  the 
foHage  where  they  feed  and  rapidly  multiply.  During  the 
summer  all  are  wingless,  reddish-brown  females  which  are 
covered  with  a  white  waxy  secretion  which  forms  a  cottony 
mass  over  the  colony.  In  the  course  of  a  fortnight  each 
female  gives  birth  to  about  100  young,  each  of  which  becomes 


Fig.    213. — The    woolly    apple-aphis    (Eriosoma    lanigera    (Hausm.). 
(After  Marlatt,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

o,  agamic  female;  b,  young  nymph;  c,  last  stage  of  nymph  of  winged  aphis; 
d,  winged  agamic  female  with  enlarged  antenna  above — all  greatly  enlarged  and 
waxy  excretion  removed. 

a  full-grown  female  in  eight  to  twenty  days,  and  then  in 
turn  gives  birth  to  a  similar  number.  Thus  they  increase 
rapidly  during  the  summer.  Early  in  the  fall  a  winged  gen- 
eration appears  which  migrates  to  elm  trees.  Each  of  these 
winged  females  gives  birth  to  from  four  to  six  wingless  males 
and  females.  These  true  sexes  mate  and  the  females  each 
lay  a  single  egg  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark.     The  winter  egg 


ORCHARD  INSECTS  297 

hatches  in  the  spring  and  the  female  attacks  the  opening  leaf, 
on  which  she  gives  birth  to  scores  of  young  and  soon  causes 
the  leaf  to  twist  up  or  "  rosette."  These  young  become 
winged  and  migrate  to  the  apple,  where  they  give  birth  to  a 
wingless  generation  which  lives  on  the  twigs,  and  which,  in 
turn,  gives  rise  to  a  fifth  generation  which  crawls  down  to  the 
roots,  and  seems  to  do  the  most  damage  of  any  during  mid- 
summer. 

The  aphides  may  be  destroyed  on  the  foliage  by  spraying 
with  7  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion,  miscible  oils  diluted  30 
or  40  times,  or  tobacco  extracts,  "Black-leaf  40"  being  used, 
one  part  in  70  of  water.  A  strong  spray  must  be  used  so  as 
to  penetrate  the  waxy  covering  and  wet  the  aphides.  A 
winter  spray  of  miscible  oil,  kerosene  emulsion,  or  lime- 
sulphur  will  destroy  the  hibernating  aphides  on  the  trunk 
if  applied  so  as  to  go  beneath  loose  bark.  Where  injury  is 
being  done  to  the  roots,  the  earth  above  them  should  be 
removed  for  6  or  8  inches  deep  and  enough  10  per  cent  kero- 
sene emulsion  or  dilute  tobacco  extract  should  be  applied  to 
wet  the  soil  thoroughly.  Dilute  miscible  oil  might  be  used 
in  the  same  way  and  some  success  has  been  secured  with 
lime-sulphur  mixture.  Where  tobacco  stems  or  dust  may 
be  secured  cheaply,  they  should  be  applied  in  the  same  way. 
The  surface  earth  should  then  be  replaced.  Nurserymen 
commonly  use  tobacco  dust  in  the  trenches  along  the  rows 
and  also  destroy  the  aphides  on  the  foliage  by  spraying. 
Means  of  controlling  this  pest  have  never  been  satisfactorily 
determined,  but  as  its  migration  to  and  from  the  elm  tree 
has  been  only  recently  discovered,  it  is  believed  that  greater 
advance  in  methods  of  control  may  soon  be  expected. 

157.  The  Peach-tree  Borer.*  (42).     Possibly  as  many 
peach  trees  are  killed  by  borers  as  by  any  other  pest.     Their 
*  Sanninoidea  exitiosa  Say.     Family  Sesiidoe,  see  page  79, 


298 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


presence  may  be  detected  by  the  mass  of  gummy,  gelatinous 
material,  more  or  less  mixed  with  soil  which  exudes  from  the 
crown  of  the  injured  trees,  and  by  the  yellowing  of  the  foliage. 
The  larvae  feed  upon  the  soft  inner  bark  of  the  lower  trunk, 
crown,  and  adjacent  roots,  and  often  so  girdle  a  tree  that  if 


Fig.  214. — Peach  tree-borer  moths  (Sanninoidea  exitiosa  Say) — natural 
size.  The  upper  one  and  the  one  at  the  right  are  females,  the 
other  two  males,     (After  Slingerland.) 


not  treated  it  will  soon  die.     Such  trees  are  also  more  sus- 
ceptible to  bark  beetles  and  diseases. 

The  adults  are  clear-winged  moths  looking  very  much 
like  wasps.  The  females  are  deep  steel-blue  with  a  broad 
orange  band  across  the  abdomen,  the  wings  expanding  about 
11"   inches.     The  males   are   smaller  and   the   abdomen   is 


ORCHARD   INSECTS  299 

marked  with  throe  or  four  narrow  yellow  stripes.  They 
emerge  during  the  late  summer,  and  the  females  lay  their 
eggs  on  the  bark  near  the  base  of  the  trees,  a  single 
one  laying  from  200  to  800.  The  larvaj  hatch  in  ten  days 
and  enter  the  soft  bark  in  which  they  feed  until  winter.  They 
resume  feeding  in  the  spring  and  masses  of  gum  exude  from 
their  burrows.  The  full-grown  borer  is  light  yellowish, 
about  one  inch  long,  with  a  brown  head  and  legs,  and  five 
pairs  of  pro-legs  on  the  abdomen.  The  mature  larva  con- 
structs a  cocoon  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  usually  on  the 
trunk  near  the  burrow,  which  is  composed  of  particles  of 
excrement  and  bark  bound  together  with  gum  and  a  thin 
lining  of  silk.  In  this  it  transforms  to  a  brown  pupa  from 
which  the  moth  emerges  in  about  three  weeks. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  control  is  to  mound  the  soil 
around  the  trunks  of  the  trees  in  late  summer,  thus  forcing 
the  moths  to  deposit  their  eggs  well  up  on  the  trunk.  In 
the  early  fall  level  down  the  earth  to  facilitate  finding  the 
larvae.  This  makes  it  much  easier  to  find  the  young  larvae 
and  the  trees  are  not  so  badly  infested  when  thus  treated. 
Various  washes  and  wrappers  have  been  recommended  for 
the  peach  borer,  but  it  is  yet  to  l^e  demonstrated  that  any 
are  generally  successful.  After  reducing  the  number  by 
mounding,  the  grower  must  dig  the  borers  out  by  hand  in 
the  fall  and  again  in  late  spring,  using  a  sharp  knife  and 
strong  wire,  or  a  blacksmith's  hoof-knife. 

158.  The  Plum  Curculic*  One  of  the  most  common 
pests  of  the  stone  and  pome  fruits  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, is  the  Plum  Curculio  (1),  whose  larva  is  the  common 
whitish  worm  found  in  peaches,  plums  and  cherries.  The 
larva  is  a  footless  gnxh  (this  distinguishes  it  from  the  cod- 

*  Cotiotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst.  Family  Curculionidce,  seepage 
125. 


300 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


ling  moth  larva),  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  wliitish, 
with  a  small  brown  head,  and  usually  lies  in  a  curved  position. 
The  adult  is  a  thick-set  snout  beetle,  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  long,  brownish  in  color,  marked  with  gray  and  black, 
and  with  four  black  ridged  tubercles  on  the  wing-covers. 

The  beetles  commence  to  emerge  from  hibernation  in  the 
spring  just  as  apple  trees  blossom  or  just  as  peach  blossoms 
have  dropped  and  feed  a  little  on  the  buds  and  unfolding 

leaves  and  blos- 
soms, but  mostly 
on  the  young 
fruit  as  soon  as 
it  is  set.  The 
females  at  once 
commence  to  lay 
eggs  in  the 
young  fruit.  The 
female  first  eats 
out  a  hole  with 
her  snout  and 
deposits  her 
small,  oval,  white 
egg  in  the  cavity. 
She  then  cuts  a  small  segment  around  it  so  that  the  growth 
of  the  fruit  will  not  crush  it.  This  gives  rise  to  the  charac- 
teristic crescent-shaped  mark,  which  has  given  the  insect  its 
name  of  "little  Turk."  During  her  life  of  about  two  months 
a  female  will  lay  100  to  300  eggs  and  will  make  as  many  more 
feeding  punctures  from  which  the  gum  will  often  exude  on 
stone  fruits.  The  eggs  hatch  in  from  three  to  five  days  and 
the  larvae  become  grown  in  from  two  to  three  weeks.  They 
then  enter  the  soil  and  form  small  cells,  an  inch  or  two  below 
the  surface,  in  which  they  transform  to  the  white  pupse  from 


Fig.  215. — The  plum  curculio  (Conotrachelus 
nenuphar  Herbst.).  (After  Chittenden,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  larva;  b,  beetle:  c,  pupa — all  much  enlarged. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


301 


which  the  adult  beetles  emerge  in  three  or  four  weeks,  or 
during  late  summer  and  early  fall. 

Injured  peaches  and  plums  usually  drop  to  the  ground, 
but  cherries  stick  to  the 
tree  and  are  small  and 
gnarled  or  eaten  out  by 
the  larvae.  In  apples  the 
larviE  seem  to  develop 
only  in  those  which  fall 
to  the  ground,  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  apples  on 
the  tree  probably  crush- 
ing the  eggs.  The  egg- 
scars  and  feeding-punc- 
tures make  the  apples 
gnarly,  summer  varieties 
sometimes  being  ren- 
dered worthless,  and  even 
winter  sorts  are  much 
blemished  by  the  scars. 
Injury  to  peaches  and 
apples  by  the  feeding- 
punctures  of  the  newly 
emerged  beetles  is  often 
fully  as  serious. 

Clean  cultivation    ^^ ^-.-^- „__._„„_       .  , .  _^.„J 

during  the   summer  will   Fig.   216. — (After    Chittenden,    U.    S 

destroy    many     of     the  Dept.  Agr.) 

pupse    in    the   soil.     On 

plmns  and  cherries  the 

beetles  may  be  collected  in  early  morning  by  spreading  a 

sheet  (often  mounted  on  a  frame)  beneath  a  tree  and  giving 

the  tree  a  quick  jar,  whereupon  the  beetles  will  feign  death 


1,  young  plums  showing  crescent-shaped  egg 
punctures  of  the  plum  curculio;  2,  adult  curculio 
on  young  peach — four  times  natural  size. 


302  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  drop  to  the  sheet,  and  may  be  dropped  in  a  can  of  water 
and  kerosene. 

Chief  dependence  for  control,  however,  is  now  placed  on 
spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons. 
On  apples  the  usual  sprayings  for  the  codling  moth  will  give 
all  the  benefit  possible.  On  peaches  the  first  spraying  should 
be  given  about  ten  days  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  a  second 
spraying  two  weeks  later,  the  arsenate  of  lead  being  added  to 
self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixture  apphed  for  controlling  the 
rot  and  similar  diseases.  Practically  the  same  applications 
as  for  peaches  will  probably  be  found  satisfactory  for  plums 
and  cherries.  Only  neutral  arsenate  of  lead,  i.e.,  that  having 
little  or  no  soluble  arsenic,  should  be  used  on  stone  fruits,  as 
a  slight  amount  of  soluble  arsenious  acid  will  burn  the  foliage 
badly. 

Orchards  near  woodlands  are  always  more  badly  injured, 
and  where  weeds,  grass,  and  trash  are  abundant  the  beetles 
find  more  suitable  quarters  for  hibernating  and  are  more 
abundant.  Cleaning  up  the  orchard  and  its  surroundings  is, 
therefore,  important  for  this  and  other  insect  pests. 

159.  Leaf  Aphides.*  Nearly  every  plant  is  attacked  by 
some  species  of  aphis  and  fruit  trees  are  no  exception.  The 
rapidity  with  which  these  little  plant-lice  multiply  has 
already  been  explained  (page  270) ,  and  is  the  reason  they 
often  become  so  destructive.  Insignificant  individually,  they 
will  reproduce  so  rapidly  that  in  a  week  or  two  the  leaves  are 
covered  with  them  and  the  growth  of  the  tree  is  seriously 
checked.  The  more  common  species  may  be  recognized 
by  their  coloration  and  habits,  and  though  they  differ  some- 
what in  their  life  histories,  most  of  them  are  controlled  by 
the  same  general  methods. 

Three  or  four  species  are  common  upon  the  apple. 
*  Family  Aphididce,  see  page  66. 


ORCHARD   INSECTS 


303 


The  Apple-aphis  *  (5,  58),  or  green  apple-aphis,  is  of  a 
bright  green  color  with  the  tips  of  the  antennae,  the  honey- 
tubes,  and  the  tail  jet  black.  The  small  oval  black  eggs  are 
found  around  the  buds  of  the  trees  during  the  winter  and 
hatch  just  as  the  leaf  buds  are  bursting  in  the  spring.  The 
young  aphides  soon  cause  the 
young  leaves  to  curl.  They 
excrete  a  large  amount  of 
sticky  honey-dew.  This 
attracts  ants,  which  feed  upon 
it,  and  on  it  grows  a  sooty 
black  fungus  which  gives  the 
infested  tree  a  characteristic 
appearance.  During  the  sum- 
mer some  of  the  generations 
develop  wings  and  spread  to 
neighboring  trees,  but  only 
apple,  pear  and  quince  are 
attacked.  In  the  fall  the  true 
males  and  females  appear, 
each  of  the  latter  laying  a 
single  winter  egg. 

The  Rosy  Apple-aphis  f  (5) 
is  larger  than  the  last  species, 
and  is  commonly  of  a  rosy 
color,  though  the  wingless  fe- 
males vary  from  salmon  or  tan 
color  to  slaty-gray  or  purplish- 
black.  The  wingless  female  is  about  one-tenth  inch  long, 
the  abdomen  being  dark  reddish-brown,  covered  with  a 
powdery  substance  which  gives  it  a  deep  blue  color,  the  mid- 
dle being  lighter  yellowish,  and  she  becomes  darker  with  age. 
*  Aphis  pomi  DeGeer.  f  Aphis  sorbi  Kalt. 


Fig.    217. — The    apple-aphis- 
winter  eggs  on  twig. 


304 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


The  life  history  is  much  hke  the  last  species,  except  that  the 
third  generation  in  the  spring  is  winged  and  migrates  to  some 
unknown  food  plant,  upon  which  it  subsists  during  the  sum- 
mer and  from  which  it  migrates  back  to  the  apple  in  the  fall. 
Its  injury  to  the  apple  foliage  is  similar  to  that  of  the  last 
species,  but  when  over-abundant  it  seems  to  be  even  more 
injurious  to  the  young  fruit. 

The  Oat-aphis  *   (6)   is  found  on  the   apple,  pear   and 

quince  in  the  spring  and 
fall  and  on  small  grains 
and  grasses.  The  wing- 
less females  are  distinctly 
smaller  than  the  previous 
species  and  are  of  a  light 
green  color,  marked  with 
transverse  diamond- 
shaped  bands  of  darker 
green  across  the  abdom- 
inal segments.  The 
honey  tubes  are  shorter, 
and  are  distinctly  en- 
larged at  the  middle  and 
flared  at  the  tip.  The 
winged  females  may  be 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  other  species  by  the  very 
short  second  fork  of  the  median  vein  at  the  tip  of  the 
fore  wings.  The  second  and  third  generations  in  the  spring 
are  winged  and  migrate  to  small  grains  and  grasses.  In 
the  fall  many  of  the  aphides  return  to  the  apple  on  which 
the  winter  eggs  are  laid,  while  others  pass  the  winter  at  the 
base  of  the  grain  plants,  except  in  the  far  North.  This  spe- 
cies does  not  curl  the  foliage  of  the  apple  so  badly  and  seems 
*  Aphis  avence  Yah. 


Fig.  218.  —  The  rosy  apple-aphis, 
wingless,  viviparous  female — greatly 
enlarged. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


305 


to  be  more  abundant  on  the  flower  buds  and  blossoms  than 
the  other  species. 

The  Black  Peach-aphis  *  (42)  attacks  the  roots,  tender 
shoots  and  foHage  of  the  peach.  Young  trees  suffering  from 
its  attacks  on  the  roots  have  a  yellowish  sickly  foliage  and 
are  often  much  injured  before  its  presence  is  suspected. 
Usually,  however,  the  numerous  aphides  on  the  leaves  will 
indicate  the  probability  of  their  also  being  on  the  roots.  In 
early  summer  the  aphides 
cluster  on  the  tender 
shoots  at  the  crotch  of 
the  tree  and  on  the  lower 
limbs  and  soon  form  a 
disgusting  black  mass 
over  the  young  leaves, 
which  are  tightly  curled 
up  from  the  injury.  On 
young  trees,  both  in  the 
nursery  and  orchard,  this 
injury  is  sometimes  so  se- 
vere as  to  kill  or  severely 
check  the  growth.  Injury 
to  trees  seems  to  be  worst 
on  light  sandy  soils. 

Both  winged  and  wingless  forms  are  found  on  the  foliage, 
but  only  wingless  ones  occur  on  the  roots.  They  are  about 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long  and  shining  deep  brown  or  black 
in  color  when  mature.  The  partly  grown  aphides,  which 
form  the  larger  part  of  most  colonies,  are  reddish-yellow  or 
amber  colored.  The  life  history  of  this  species  is  not  well 
known,  as  neither  the  sexual  forms  nor  the  eggs  have  been 
observed.  Like  the  other  species  it  appears  on  the  foliage 
*  Aphis  -persicoE-niger  Er.  Sm. 


Fig.   219. — The   oat-aphis,   wingless, 
viviparous  female — greatly  enlarged. 


306 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


as  soon  as  the  buds  burst  in  the  spring.  During  the  mid- 
summer the  aphides  are  more  common  on  the  roots,  partic- 
ularly on  the  smaller  and  more  tender  roots. 

The  Green  P each-aphis  *  is  well  described  by  its  name. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage  on  any  of  the  stone 
fruit  trees.  The  first  generation  in  the  spring  is  a  deep  pink 
color,  but  the  second  and  third  are  yellowish-green.  Aphides 
of  the  third  generation  are   winged   and   are  about  one- 


X/.7 


Fig.    220. — The    black    peach-aphis    (Aphis    persicce-niger    Er.    Sm.). 

(After  Gillette  and  Taylor.) 

Winged    viviparous   female;     young   female,  first   instar;     apterous   viviparous 
female — much  enlarged. 

twelfth  inch  long,  with  the  head,  antennse,  thorax,  honey- 
tubes,  a  large  spot  on  the  center  of  the  abdomen  and  smaller 
spots  in  front  of  the  honey-tubes,  blackish.  This  third  gen- 
eration migrates  to  various  common  succulent  vegetables 
such  as  cabbage,  rape,  turnip,  tomato,  celery  and  a  long  list 
of  food  plants,  being  troublesome  in  greenhouses  the  year 
round.  In  the  fall,  migrants  return  to  the  peach.  Injury 
to  the  peach  seems  to  have  been  most  common  in  the  South- 
west, though  it  has  been  observed  in  other  sections. 
*  Myzus  persicce  Sulz. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


307 


The  Mealy  Flum-louse  *  is  a  light  green  species  covered 
by  a  bluish-white  mealy  powder.  It  has  a  long  narrow  body 
marked  with  three  longitudinal  stripes  of  a  darker  green. 
The  honey-tubes  arc  short,  thick,  and  slightly  constricted  at 
the  base.  The  aphides  migrate  to  certain  grasses  upon 
which  they  feed  during  the  summer  and  return  to  the  plum 
or  prune  in  the  fall  and  there  deposit  their  winter  eggs. 


Fig.  221.— The  hop  plant-louse.     (After  Riley,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

Third  geneiation  on   plum — the   generation   which   flies  to  the  hop — enlarged; 
head  below  at  right — still  more  enlarged. 


The  Hop  Plant-louse  f  also  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg 
stage  on  the  plum  and  migrates  to  hops,  which  are  often 
seriously  damaged.  Only  rarely  is  it  sufficiently  abundant 
to  do  much  injury  to  plum  foliage.  The  wingless  forms  are 
light  green  or  yellowish-green  with  no  distinctive  markings, 
while  the  winged  forms  have  the  head,  thoracic  lobes  and  a 
few  dashes  on  the  abdomen  black.  The  species  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  the  prominent  tubercle  which  pro- 

*  Hyalopterus  arundinis  Fab.  f  Phorodon  hurnuli  Schrank. 


308 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


jects  from  the  head  on  the  inside  of  the  base,  and  a  less 
prominent  one  on  the  basal  segment,  of  each  antenna. 

The  Rusty-brown  Plum-louse  *  is  readily  distinguished 
from  others  common  on  the  plum  and  prune  by  its  dark 
rusty-brown  color,  with  the  base  of  the  antennae,  tibiae  and 
tail  a  contrasting  white.  This  species  has  done  considerable 
injury  in  the  Southwest  and  also  in  New  England,  so  that  it 
is  evidently  widely  distributed.  It  migrates  to  various  com- 
mon grasses  upon  which  it  feeds  during  the  smnmer  and 


Fig.    222. — The    black    cherry-aphis    (Myzus    cerasi    Fab.).     (After 

Gillette  and  Taylor.) 

1,  apterous  viviparoua  female;    2,  winged  viviparous  female — enlarged. 

returns  to  the  plum  in  the  fall.     The  wingless  egg-laying 
female  and  the  male  are  almost  black. 

The  Black  Cherry-louse  f  has  long  been  known  as  a  pest 
of  the  cherry  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  this  food-plant.  Both  the  winged  and  wingless 
forms  are  deep  shining  black,  the  body  is  rather  broad  and 
flat  and  the  honey-tubes  are  unusually  long  and  cylindrical. 
The  habits  of  the  species  are  somewhat  like  those  of  the 
black  peach  aphis  in  the  way  in  which  the  aphides  cluster  on 
*  Aphis  setarice  Thos.  t  Myzus  cerasi  Fab. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS  309 

the  smaller  sprouts  near  the  crotch  before  spreading  to  the 
rest  of  the  tree,  and  in  the  disgusting  black  masses  of  curled 
foliage,  dripping  with  honey  dew  and  swarming  with  ants, 
which  they  soon  cause. 

Control.  Most  of  these  aphides  may  be  controlled  by 
much  the  same  treatment.  Spraying  the  trees  in  the  winter 
with  lime-sulphur  wash  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale  (page  289), 
will  kill  a  large  percentage  of  the  eggs  and  thus  materially 
reduce  the  numbers,  though  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  for 
complete  eradication.  With  all  of  these  aphides  it  is  impor- 
tant to  spray  them  in  the  spring  just  as  the  buds  are  bursting 
and  before  they  become  secreted  in  the  foliage  which  soon 
curls  around  them,  and  thus  protects  them  from  being  hit  by 
the  spray.  Early  and  thorough  spraying  is  essential;  spray- 
ing after  the  foliage  is  curled  is  of  but  little  value.  Kerosene 
emulsion,  diluted  to  contain  7  per  cent  of  kerosene,  dilute 
miscible  oils,  whale-oil  soap  1  pound  to  5  or  6  gallons  of  water, 
or  tobacco  extracts,  will  destroy  the  aphides,  though  the 
exact  strength  must  be  varied  with  the  species.  The  most 
successful  spray  for  aphides  of  all  sorts  seems  to  be  a  to- 
bacco extract  known  as  Black-leaf  40  or  Nicotine  Sulphate. 
The  spray  used  against  aphides  should  be  applied  with  some 
force  so  as  to  penetrate  the  expanding  buds.  Where  Bor- 
deaux mixture  is  being  applied  for  plant  diseases,  either 
whale-oil  soap  or  tobacco  extracts  may  be  added  to  it  for 
the  control  of  aphides.  Lime-sulphur  solution  has  not 
proven  satisfactory  for  the  destruction  of  aphides  on  foliage. 

160.  Orchard  Caterpillars.  Several  hundred  species  of 
caterpillars  have  been  listed  as  attacking  the  foliage  of  our 
common  fruit  trees,  but  a  few  are  so  common  as  to  require 
attention  almost  every  year. 

The  Fall  Webworm  *  is  so-called  because  its  webs  usually 
*  Hyphantria  cunea  Drury.     Family  Ardiidce,  see  page  81. 


310 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


festoon  the  injured  trees  in  August  and  September.     All  of 
the  common  fruit  trees,  various  shade  trees,  and  even  some 


Fig.    223. — The    fall    weljworin     {Ihjphmdria    cunea    Dru.).     (After 

Howard,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  Tight  form  of  full-grown  larva;    b,  dark  form  of  same;    c,  pupa;    d,  spotted 
form  of  moth — all  slightly  enlarged. 

of  our  garden  vegetables  are  commonly  attacked.  The 
grown  caterpillars  are  about  an  inch  long,  covered  with  long 
black  and  white  hairs,  and  vary  in  color  from  yellowish  with 


ORCHARD  INSECTS  311 

black  and  yellow  tubercles,  to  almost  black.  The  moths 
have  a  wing  expanse  of  about  li  inches,  and  are  pure  wliite 
or  more  or  less  spotted  with  black.  In  the  North  the  moths 
emerge  late  in  June  and  lay  their  eggs  in  late  July,  Four 
or  five  hundred  eggs  are  laid  in  a  patch  on  a  leaf,  and  hatch 
in  about  ten  days.  The  young  larvse  at  once  spin  a  web 
over  the  foliage  on  which  they  are  feeding,  which  is  enlarged 
as  necessary,  so  that  before  long  it  may  cover  a  whole  limb. 
These  webs  are  usually  first  noticed  in  early  August  in  the 
north  and  a  month  earlier  in  the  Middle  States.  Within  the 
web  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves  are  eaten  off  until  they  are  left 
dry  and  brown.  The  caterpillars  then  leave  and  form  a  new 
web  on  a  fresh  branch,  so  that  before  long  a  tree  may  become 
covered  with  the  webs.  The  caterpillars  become  grown  in 
four  to  six  weeks  and  then  find  secluded  places  under  the 
bark,  in  rubbish  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  or  just  under  the  soil, 
and  there  spin  flimsy  silken  cocoons  in  which  they  transform 
to  small  brown  pupae,  which  hibernate  over  winter.  In  the 
Middle  States  and  farther  south  there  are  two  generations 
each  year,  the  first  generation  of  caterpillars  appearing  in 
June  and  July  and  the  second  in  August  and  September. 

Orchards  which  are  well  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead 
for  the  codhng  moth  will  rarely  be  troubled  with  this  cater- 
pillar, but  when  unusually  abundant  it  will  be  well  to  spray 
with  arsenate  of  lead  for  this  and  other  leaf-eating  cater- 
pillars just  as  they  are  hatching  from  the  eggs,  which  will  be 
about  August  first  in  the  North. 

The  Canker  Worins  *  (1)  are  also  common  pests  of  or- 
chard and  shade  trees,  particularly  of  old  orchards  which 
have  been  in  sod  and  have  not  been  sprayed.  They  are 
among  the  most  common  of  the  "loopers"  or  "measuring 

*  Paleacrita  vernata  Peck  and  Alsophila  pometaria  Harris.  Family 
Geometridce,  see  page  87. 


312 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


worms"  and  are  the  larvae  of  two  nearly  related  species  of 
moths,  very  sunilar  both  in  appearance  and  habits.  The 
spring  canker  worm  is  so-called  because  its  eggs  are  laid  by 
the  females  in  March  and  April  and  hatch  a  month  later, 
while  the  fall  canker  worms  hatch  about  the  same  time  from 

eggs  laid  the  previous  Novem- 
Ijcr  or  December.  The  female 
moths  are  wingless  and  look 
much  more  like  spiders  than 
ordinary  moths.  The  male 
moths  have  delicate  wings  of 
a  dark  gray  color,  expanding 
about  an  inch.  The  fore 
wings  of  the  spring  canker 
worm  male  are  crossed  with 
three  rather  indistinct  darker  lines,  while  those  of  the  fall  can- 
ker worm  are  crossed  by  two  whitish  bands.  The  young  cater- 
pillars commence  to  feed  on  the  leaves  just  as  they  are 
expanding,  and  if  abundant  will  soon  devour  all  but  the  mid- 
ribs.    They  have  a  habit  of  dropping  from  the  trees  and 


Fig.   224. — The    spring   canker 
worm  {Paleacrila  vernata). 

a,   male   moth;    b,  female  moth — • 
both  natural  size. 


Fig.  225. — Eggs  of  spring  canker  worm — twice  natural  size. 
(After  W.  E.  Britton.) 

hanging  suspended  on  strands  of  silk.  They  become  full 
grown  in  four  or  five  weeks  and  are  then  about  an  inch  long, 
slender,  cylindrical,  varying  from  ash-gray  to  green  or  yellow, 
but  mostly  dark  greenish-olive  or  blackish,  marked  with 
narrow  pale  lines  down  the  back  and  a  whitish  stripe  along 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


313 


each  side.  The  spring  canker  worm  has  but  a  single  pair 
of  pro-legs  on  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  while  the  fall 
canker  worm  has  two  pairs  of  pro-legs.  The  mature  cater- 
pillars enter  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  to  five  inches,  where 
they  hollow  out  earthen  cells  in  which  they  change  to  pupae. 

In  old  sod  orchards  where  the 
canker  worms  are  always  worst, 
their  pupae  may  be  destroyed  by 
plowing  and  thorough  cultivation 
during  the  summer.  The  most 
effective  means  of  destroying  the 
caterpillars  is  to  spray  with  arsenate 
of  lead,  three  pounds  to  the  barrel, 
just  as  the  foliage  has  fairly  ex- 
panded. A  second  spraying  just 
after  the  blossoms  drop  will  com- 
plete the  control. 

The  Tent  Caterpillar*  (1,9,43), 
is  common  on  wayside  apple  and 
cherry  trees  everywhere  east  of  the 
Rockies.  The  little  caterpillars 
hatch  just  as  the  leaf-buds  are  ex- 
panding in  the  spring  and  they  at 
once  commence  their  characteristic 
tent-shaped  web  at  the  nearest 
crotch.  All  the  caterpillars  from  one 
egg-mass  co-operate  in  spinning  the 
tent  which  furnishes  them  a  shelter 
at  night  and  during  cold  and  wet 
weather.  The  tent  is  gradually  enlarged  by  adding  new 
layers  of  silk,  the  caterpillars  hving  beneath  the  outer  layers, 
but  no  foliage  is  included  as  in  the  webs  of  the  fall  web- 
*  Malacasoma  americana  Fab.     Family  Lasiocampidce,  see  page  88. 


Fig.  226.  — Wingless  fe- 
male moth  and  egg 
mass,  and  winged  male 
moth  of  the  fall  canker 
worm — t  wice  natural 
size.  (After  W.  E. 
Britton.) 


314 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


worm.  When  several  colonies  occur  on  a  tree  the  caterpillars 
will  soon  strip  it  of  foliage,  and  not  infrequently  neglected 
trees  will  be  more  or  less  defoliated  every  year.  The  cater- 
pillars become  grown  in  about  six  weeks  and  are  then  two 
inches  long,  deep  black  in  color,  with  a  white  stripe  down  the 
back,  and  on  each  side  of  each  segment  is  an  oval  pale  blue 


riu.  227. — l^gg  mass  ot  the 
tent  caterpillar. 


Fig.  228. — Half-grown  tent  caterpillars 
on  tent — reduced  in  size. 


spot  with  a  broader  velvety  black  spot  immediately  in  front 
of  it,  giving  somewhat  the  effect  of  an  eye-spot.  Having 
found  a  suitable  place  under  loose  bark  or  rubbish  or  in  a 
fence  corner  the  caterpillar  spins  a  thin  cocoon  of  tough  white 
silk  in  which  it  transforms  to  the  pupa.  About  three  weeks 
later  the  adult  moths  emerge  and  the  females  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  tips  of  the  twigs.     The  moths  are  of  a  brownish  color, 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


315 


with  two  nearly  parallel  white  bands  extending  obliquely 
across  the  fore  wings.  The  wings  of  the  females  expand 
about  li  inches,  while  the  males  are  smaller  and  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  their  feathery  antennae.  The  egg-mass  is 
from  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  long,  and  contains  about 
200  eggs,  placed 
together  on  end.  It 
is  covered  with  a 
glue  which  gives  a 
tough  glistening 
surface  to  the  whole 
mass,  and  forms  a 
knot-like  band 
around  the  twig. 

The  egg-masses 
may  be  easily  found 
and  pruned  off 
during  the  winter. 
It  is  well  to  leave 
them  in  the  orchard 
in  a  box  covered 
with  netting  so  that 
the  parasites  may 
escape.  Neglected 
apple  and  cherry 
trees  should  be  de- 
stroyed, as  they  merely  harbor  this  and  other  pests.  Spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead  just  as  the  foliage  comes  out 
will  readily  destro}^  the  caterpillars. 

The  Yellow-necked  Apple  Caterpillar*  In  late  summer 
one  often  finds  a  mass  of  caterpillars,  huddled  together  as 
if  confessedly  guilty,   on   the    defoliated   tip  of   an  apple 

*  Datana  minisira  Drury.     Family  Notodontidce,  see  page  83. 


Fig.  229. — The  tent  caterpillar  moth. 
Lowe.) 


(After 


316 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


limb.  These  usually  belong  to  this  species.  The  yellow- 
necked  apple  caterpillar  is  about  two  inches  long,  with  a 
black  head  and  the  next  segment  a  bright  orange-yellow; 
down  the  middle  of  the  back  runs  a  black  stripe  and 
on  either  side  of  the  body  are  three  stripes  of  black 
alternating  with  four  of  yellow.     If  the  limb  is  jarred  or 

a  caterpillar  is  touched, 
it  at  once  assumes  a 
characteristic  position, 
throwing  the  head  and 
tail  into  the  air  with  a 
jerk  and  clinging  to  the 
limb  with  the  pro-legs, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  230. 
The  caterpillars  become 
grown  in  four  or  five 
weeks  and  then  enter 
the  earth  for  from  2 
to  4  inches,  where  they 
transform  to  naked 
brown  pupae.  The 
moths  emerge  the  next 
year  from  May  to  July, 
and  the  females  lay 
their  eggs  in  masses 
on  the  foliage  during  midsummer.  The  moths  have  a 
wing  expanse  of  about  two  inches,  the  fore  wings  being  a 
reddish-brown  color  crossed  by  three  to  five  darker  lines, 
and  the  head  and  thorax  being  chestnut  brown. 

161.  The  Pear  Slug*   (40).     The  pear  slug  is  an  old 
European  pest  which  is  now  found  throughout  the  United 
States  and  in  many  parts  of  the  world.     Its  work  is  usually 
*  Caliroa  cerasi  Linn.     Family  Tenthredinidx,  see  page  155. 


Fig.  230. — -The  yellow-necked  apple 
caterpillar  {Datuna  minislra  Dru.); 
mature  laryse  and  moth — natural  size. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS 


317 


recognized  by  the  browning  of  the  leaves  of  pear  and  cherry, 
or  sometimes  plum,  where  it  has  eaten  off  the  surface  of  the 
leaves. 

The  parent  insect  is  a  small  saw-fl}',  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  long,  glossy  black,  with  four  iridescent  wings,  crossed 
by  a  smoky  band  at  the  middle  and  folded  over  the  back 
when  at  rest.  The  flies  appear  by  the  time  the  foliage  is 
well  out,  by  mid-April  in  Alaryland  and  late  May  or  early 


Fig.    231. — The    pear   slug    (Caliroa   cerasi   Linn.).     (After    Marlatt, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  adult  female  saw-fly;    h,  larva  with  slime  removed;    c,  same  in  normal  state; 
d,  leaves  with  larvae — natural  size;   o,  b,  c,  much  enlarged. 

June  in  Iowa  and  New  England.  Like  other  saw-flies,  the 
female  has  a  strong  ovipositor  with  saw-like  teeth  at  the 
tip,  with  which  she  cuts  a  little  blister-like  cell  beneath  the 
upper  sm-face  of  the  leaf,  in  which  the  egg  is  deposited 
(Fig.  232). 

The  bodies  of  the  half-grown  larvae  are  dark  blackish- 
green,  covered  with  a  viscid,  slimy  substance  which  has 
given  them  the  name  of  slugs.     The  head  is  dark  brown,  and 


318 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


the  anterior  segments  are  much  expanded,  concealing  the 
head  and  legs.  There  are  seven  pairs  of  legs  on  the  abdomen, 
the  usual  pair  at  the  tip  being  wanting,  so  that  it  is  slightly 
elevated.  The  slugs  eat  off  the  surface  of  the  leaf  until  only 
a  network  of  veins,  held  together  by  the  brown  epidermis  of 
the  lower  surface,  is  left.  Injured  leaves  drop  and  trees  are 
often  nearly  defoliated,  thus  seriously  injuring  the  growth 

and  fruiting  of  the 
tree.  The  larvae  be- 
come grown  in  about 
twenty-five  days  and 
are  then  about  one- 
half  an  inch  long. 
After  the  last  moult 
the  larva  becomes  a 
light  orange-yellow 
color,  without  the 
slimy  covering,  but  it 
almost  immediately 
enters  the  soil  where 
it  forms  a  small  cell 
and  transforms  to 
the  pupa.  Some  of 
the  larvae  of  each 
generation  and  all  of  those  of  the  last  generation  remain 
in  the  soil  over  winter  and  transform  to  pupae  the  next 
spring.  In  the  North  there  are  but  two  generations,  the 
second  larvae  appearing  in  August.  In  the  latitude  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  second  generation  of  larvae  are 
most  injurious  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  there  is 
probably  a  third  generation  later. 

The  best  means  of  control  is  by  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead,  which  quickly  destroys  the  larvae.     They  may  also 


Fig.  232. — Illustrating  method  of  oviposi- 
tion  and  emergence  of  the  pear  slug. 
(After  Marlatt,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

a,  cutting  of  cell  beneath  epidermis,  showing 
the  tip  of  the  ovipositor;  b,  the  cell  after  the  egg 
has  been  deposited;  c,  same  after  escape  of  the 
larva — all  much  enlarged. 


ORCHARD  INSECTS  319 

be  killed  by  contact  insecticides.  Whale-oil,  or  other  soaps, 
1  pound  to  2  gallons  of  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion  con- 
taining 10  per  cent  kerosene,  are  effective.  Hellebore,  1  part 
to  5  parts  of  air-slaked  lime,  may  be  used  as  a  dust  or  as  a 
spray  1  pound  to  50  gallons  of  water.  In  gardens  where 
water  under  pressure  is  available,  the  slugs  may  be  washed 
off  by  a  strong  jet  from  a  hose,  as  they  are  frequently  washed 
off  by  heavy  rains  and  are  much  less  injurious  in  wet 
seasons. 

162.  The  Codling  Moth.*  The  common  apple  worm  (1) 
is  well-known  almost  everywhere  apples  are  grown  and  is 
the  most  serious  insect  enemy  of  our  most  valuable  fruit. 
Where  spraying  is  not  practiced  it  often  destroys  25  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  crop  and  in  1907  Prof.  A.  L.  Quaintance  esti- 
mated the  total  loss  due  to  this  insect  in  the  United  States  at 
$12,000,000. 

The  adult  moths  are  rarely  seen  as  they  fly  at  dusk  and 
closely  resemble  the  bark  of  the  apple  on  which  they  rest 
during  the  day.  They  are  small  grayish  moths  with  a  wing 
expanse  of  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  The  wings  are 
crossed  with  numerous  fine  lines  of  gray  and  brown,  and 
bear  a  large  bronze-brown  spot  near  the  tip. 

"VVTien  the  larvae  leave  the  apples  in  the  fall  they  burrow 
into  corky  crevices  of  the  bark  and  there  spin  their  white 
silken  cocoons  in  which  they  hibernate  over  winter.  In  this 
stage  large  numbers  of  them  are  destroyed  by  woodpeckers. 
About  the  time  apples  blossom  the  larvae  transform  to 
small  brown  pupae,  from  which  the  moths  emerge  in  two  or 
three  weeks.  The  females  then  lay  their  eggs  largely  on  the 
leaves.  The  eggs  are  difficult  to  see,  being  about  the  size  of 
a  pin-head,  and  look  like  small  white  blisters  on  the  leaves. 

*  Cydia  pomonella  Linn.  Family  Grapholithidce,  super-family 
Tortricina,  see  page  76. 


320 


SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 


They  hatch  in  from  five  to  ten  clays  or  about  three  to  four 
weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall.  The  young  larva  feeds  a  little 
on  the  tender  parts  of  a  leaf,  then  crawls  to  the  nearest 
apple,  which  it  usually  enters  through  the  blossom  end,  and 


Fig.  233. — The  codling  moth  {Cydia  'pomonella  Linn.). 

a,  egg — greatly  enlarged;  h,  young  larva,  hatching  from  egg;  c,  larva  In  winter 
cocoon  on  inside  of  a  bit  of  bark;  d,  pupa — original;  e,  moth — after  Slingerland 
— all  much  enlarged. 


bores  directly  into  the  core  where  it  devours  the  seeds.  In 
three  or  four  weeks  it  eats  its  way  out  through  the  side  of  the 
apple  leaving  its  characteristic  "worm-hole."  The  full 
grown  larva  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  whitish  or 
pinkish  in  color,  with  a  brown  head  and  faint  tubercles  over 


ORCHARD  INSECTS  321 

the  body,  and  with  three  pairs  of  true  legs  on  the  thorax  and 
five  pairs  of  false-legs  on  the  abdomen.  In  New  England 
and  the  Northern  States  there  is  but  a  single  generation 
each  year  (at  most  only  a  very  small  second  generation),  but 
in  the  Middle  States  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  larvae 
pupate  at  once  and  a  second  generation  of  moths  emerges 
in  August,  while  farther  south  all  transform  to  a  second  gen- 
eration. The  larvae  of  the  second  generation  feed  mostly 
on  the  surface  of  the  apple,  thus  giving  entrance  to  diseases 
which  cause  its  decay. 

Although  scraping  off  the  loose  bark  from  the  trunks  of 
the  trees  and  keeping  them  smooth  so  as  to  give  less  favor- 
able conditions  for  the  hibernation  of  the  larvae,  and  the 
attraction  of  birds  to  the  orchard  during  the  winter,  will  aid 
in  subduing  the  codling  moth,  its  control  is  now  accom- 
plished almost  entirely  by  proper  spraying  with  arsenicals. 
Paris  green  and  various  other  arsenites  were  formerly  much 
used,  but  arsenate  of  lead  has  now  practically  superseded 
them  in  commercial  use.  In  spraying  for  the  codling  moth 
the  object  of  the  first  spray  is  to  fill  the  calyx  cavity,  through 
which  the  young  larva  enters  the  apple,  with  the  poison  so 
that  it  will  be  killed  before  it  enters  the  flesh  of  the  apple. 
To  accomplish  this  the  trees  should  be  sprayed  just  as  soon 
as  the  blossoms  fall  with  arsenate  of  lead,  using  three  pounds 
of  the  paste  to  50  gallons  of  water.  The  spray  must  be 
applied  with  sufficient  force  so  that  it  will  be  driven  through 
the  trees  and  will  enter  the  blossoms  pointing  inward  on  the 
side  of  the  tree  away  from  the  sprayer.  A  second  spraying 
should  be  given  about  three  weeks  later,  just  as  the  eggs  are 
hatching,  to  destroy  the  young  larvae  feeding  on  the  leaves. 
Obviously  this  should  be  applied  so  as  thoroughly  to  cover 
the  leaves  above  and  below.  In  the  West  and  South,  where- 
the  second  generation  of  larvae  is  troublesome,  a  third  spray- 


322  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

ing  about  ten  weeks  after  the  petals  fall  and  a  fourth  three 
weeks  later  will  be  found  advisable.  With  thorough  spray- 
ing not  over  2  or  3  per  cent  of  the  picked  fruit  should 
show  any  injury  from  codhng  moth.  Both  the  first  and 
second  sprays  are  usually  combined  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  lime-sulphur  solution  for  the  control  of  fungous 
diseases. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
INSECT   CONTROL 

When  one  considers  the  multitude  of  different  insect 
pests  which  attack  all  of  our  cultivated  plants  it  becomes 
self-evident  that  methods  for  their  control  must  be  almost 
equally  varied.  However,  there  are  a  few  fundamental 
principles  which  will  greatly  aid  in  planning  how  to  combat 
them. 

First  among  these  is  the  fact  that  it  is  essential  to  pre- 
vent injury  rather  than  to  destroy  the  insect  pests  after  dam- 
age has  been  noticed,  for  usually  by  the  time  they  have 
been  killed  they  have  badly  injured  the  plant.  Thus  it  is 
obviously  important  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  more  com- 
mon insect  enemies  of  any  given  crop  and  to  plan  for  their 
control  as  a  part  of  the  culture  of  the  crop. 

In  the  control  of  insects  affecting  the  staple  crops  which 
are  grown  over  large  areas  in  an  extensive  manner,  it  is  im- 
practicable to  use  insecticides  and  various  mechanical 
methods  which  can  be  used  profitably  in  the  orchard  or 
garden.  Staple  crop  insects  must  be  controlled,  if  at  all, 
by  general  methods  of  farm  practice  which  may  be  carried 
out  as  a  feature  of  the  culture  of  the  crop,  but  which  will 
fatally  interfere  with  their  development.  To  accomplish 
this  successfully  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  life  history  of 
each  insect  so  as  to  know  just  when  it  is  most  vulnerable 
and  how  a  given  procedure  affects  it,  as  may  be  appreciated 
from  the  description  in  the  preceding  pages. 

323 


324  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Against  insects  affecting  orchard  and  garden  crops  which 
have  a  higher  value  per  acre,  the  use  of  insecticides  and 
mechanical  devices  will  also  prove  profitable,  but  to  deter- 
mine which  will  be  effective  we  must  know  somewhat  of  the 
insect's  anatomy  and  habits,  for  it  is  entirely  useless  to  apply 
an  arsenical  poison  for  insects  whose  mouth-parts  are  so 
constructed  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  eat  it. 

163.  Methods  of  Farm  Practice  for  Insect  Control.* 
(a)  Crop  Rotation.  Many  insects  feed  on  only  one  crop. 
Evidently,  therefore,  if  a  field  be  planted  in  a  different  crop, 
they  will  have  to  migrate  from  it  and  a  very  considerable 
mortality  will  result,  while  if  it  were  left  in  the  same  crop 
they  would  have  ideal  conditions  under  which  to  multiply. 
Thus  the  western  corn  root-worm  may  be  practically  con- 
trolled by  not  growing  corn  on  the  same  land  for  two  suc- 
cessive years,  for  it  feeds  only  on  corn  and  is  not  injurious 
where  rotation  is  practiced.  Injury  by  the  Hessian  fly  to 
wheat  and  by  the  chinch  bug  to  corn  is  also  very  materially 
reduced  by  frequent  rotation.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
arrange  a  rotation  in  which  plants  nearly  related  botanically 
do  not  follow  each  other,  for  they  are  usually  attacked  by 
the  same  insects.  Thus,  white  grubs,  wire-worms  and  cut- 
worms live  in  sod  land,  where  they  often  become  exceedingly 
abundant.  If  the  land  be  put  in  corn  these  pests  will  con- 
centrate on  the  fewer  plants  and  do  serious  injury,  whereas 
if  it  had  been  planted  in  some  small  grain,  buckwheat,  cow- 
peas,  potatoes  or  some  other  crop  which  they  do  not  affect, 
the  land  could  then  be  safely  planted  in  corn  the  next  sea- 
son.    The  same  principle  applies  to  various  garden  crops. 

*  See  F.  M.  Webster,  Farm  Practice  in  the  Control  of  Field  Crop 
Insects,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905,  and  Some 
Things  that  the  Grower  of  Cereal  and  Forage  Crops  Should  Ivnow 
About  Insects,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908, 
page  367. 


INSECT  CONTROL  325 

(b)  Time  of  Planting.  Earl}-  planting  or  the  use  of  early- 
maturing  varieties  often  enables  the  farmer  to  secure  a  crop 
before  its  pests  have  become  most  al^undant.  This  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated  with  the  cotton  boll  weevil  and  the 
cotton  bollworm  or  corn  earworm.  Early  cabbage  plants 
seem  to  be  less  injured  by  maggots  and  early  varieties  of 
peas  escape  the  aphis.  On  the  contrary,  late  planting  some- 
times enables  a  crop  to  escape  its  enemies,  as  in  the  case 
when  wheat  is  sown  too  late  in  the  fall  for  the  Hessian  fly 
to  lay  its  eggs  on  it. 

(c)  Weeds.  In  many  cases  immature  insects  feed  upon 
some  common  weed  and  the  adults  attack  a  cultivated  crop, 
or  they  may  multiply  on  weeds  in  neglected  fields  and  then 
migrate  to  a  crop.  "Volunteer"  plants  of  the  host  crop 
should  be  considered  as  weeds,  for  they  afford  food  to  insect 
pests  in  the  same  way.  Thus  the  corn  root-aphis  lives  on 
the  roots  of  smart  weed  and  other  weeds  and  grasses  until 
corn  is  available,  and  cutworms  feed  on  whatever  vegeta- 
tion is  found  before  corn  is  planted,  so  that  these  pests  are 
more  or  less  starved  out  on  land  kept  free  from  weeds.  The 
cotton  boll  weevil  feeds  on  volunteer  cotton  in  the  early 
spring  and  the  Hessian  fl}^  oviposits  on  volunteer  wheat  in 
late  summer  and  early  fall.  Seedling  apple,  peach  and 
cherry  trees  may  also  be  considered  as  weeds  from  the 
standpoint  of  insect  control. 

(f/)  Fertilization  and  Culture.  There  seems  to  be  no  evi- 
dence that  any  of  our  common  fertilizers  have  any  effect  as 
insecticides,  but  it  is  well  known  that  plants  which  have 
been  weakened  from  an}-  cause  are  more  subject  to  insect 
attack,  while  vigorous  plants  will  often  survive  injury,  so 
that  liberal  fertilization  is  often  of  considerable  importance, 
particularly  with  insects  affecting  the  roots  or  boring  in  the 
stems.     In  the  same  way,  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 


326  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

and  good  culture  may  give  a  crop  such  favorable  conditions 
as  to  enable  it  to  withstand  insect  injury  which  would  be 
fatal  to  plants  of  weaker  growth. 

(e)  Clean  Farming.  The  insects  pecuHar  to  a  crop  often 
feed  and  multiply  in  the  refuse  left  on  the  land  after  the  crop 
is  harvested  and  then  hibernate  over  winter  beneath  it.  All 
remnants  of  a  crop,  such  as  stubble,  vines,  leaves  or  stumps, 
should  be  removed  from  the  field  or  turned  under  as  soon 
after  harvest  as  possible.  Numerous  examples  have  been 
cited  in  the  preceding  pages  of  insects  which  hibernate  in 
stubble  or  under  the  remains  of  the  crop. 

(/)  Burning.  Stubble  and  refuse  may  often  be  gathered 
into  piles  in  which  the  insects  will  congregate  and  then  be 
burned.  The  burning  of  grass  land  is  often  resorted  to  for 
the  control  of  army-worms,  chinch-bugs,  and  grasshoppers, 
but  should  only  be  practiced  where  they  occur  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  warrant  it.  Strawberry  beds  are  sometimes 
burned  over  to  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  root-aphis,  and  the 
aphides  affecting  small  grains  may  sometimes  be  controlled 
when  they  occur  in  small  spots  by  covering  them  with  straw 
and  burning. 

(g)  Plowing.  Deep  plowing  and  thorough  harrowing 
are  often  exceedingly  effective  in  the  control  of  many  insects 
which  pass  some  one  stage  in  the  soil.  Late  fall  and  winter 
plowing  is  particularly  beneficial,  as  the  cells  in  which  the 
insects  pass  the  winter  are  so  broken  up  that  they  are 
exposed  to  freezing  and  thawing  and  excessive  moisture. 
Thus  cutworms  pass  the  winter  in  the  soil  in  the  larval 
stage;  the  cotton  boll  worm  or  corn  earworm  in  the  pupal 
stage;  May  beetles  and  click  beetles  hibernate  as  newly 
transformed  beetles;  and  grasshoppers'  eggs  pass  the  winter 
just  under  the  soil;  but  all  are  largely  destroyed  by  thorough 
plowing  and  harrowing,  as  has  been  described. 


INSECT  CONTROL  327 

(h)  Trap  Crops.  It  sometimes  happens  that  one  plant 
or  variety  is  preferred  by  an  insect  and  can  be  used 
for  attracting  it  from  the  plants  to  be  protected.  For  in- 
stance, the  cotton  bollworm  prefers  to  lay  its  eggs  on  corn. 
If  a  few  rows  of  corn  be  planted  here  and  there  through  the 
cotton  field  so  as  to  come  into  silk  about  the  time  moths 
which  normally  lay  on  cotton  are  flying,  the  eggs  will  be  laid 
on  the  corn,  which  can  then  be  cut  and  fed  to  stock,  and  the 
cotton  will  be  protected.  In  a  similar  manner  radishes  are 
sometimes  used  as  a  catch  crop  for  the  maggots  affecting 
cabbage  and  onions,  while  kale  makes  an  excellent  catch 
crop  for  the  harlequin  cabbage  bug. 

164.  Insecticides.  Substances  which  destroy  insects  are 
commonly  called  insecticides  and  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes : 

1.  Poisons  kill  by  being  eaten  and  are  usually  composed 
of  some  form  of  arsenic  and  are,  therefore,  called  arsenicals. 

2.  Contact  Insecticides  kill  either  by  clogging  up  the  spir- 
acles, the  openings  of  the  respiratory  system,  or  by  entering 
the  trachea,  and  thus  causing  suffocation,  or  by  their  cor- 
rosive action  on  the  skin. 

3.  Gases  are  used  for  fumigating  buildings,  stored 
products,  greenhouses  and  similar  structures  infested  with 
insects  where  other  means  are  not  practicable. 

4.  A  fourth  class  of  substances  used  against  insects  may 
be  known  as  repellents.  They  are  not  real  insecticides,  for 
they  do  not  kill  the  insects  but  merely  prevent  them  from 
attacking  the  plant  or  animal  to  which  they  are  applied. 

1.  Poisons.  Poisons  are  applied  to  the  food  of  the  insect 
and  must  be  eaten  to  be  effective.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  they  are  effective  only  against  biting  insects,  or  those 
which  lap  up  their  food  from  the  surface,  and  that  they  can 
be  of  no  use  against  the  sucking  insects,  such  as  the  true 


328  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

bugs,  which  suck  the  juices  from  beneath  the  surface. 
Poisons  may  not  always,  however,  be  the  most  effective 
means  of  combating  biting  insects,  for  some  caterpillars  are 
sometimes  effectually  checked  by  use  of  contact  insecti- 
cides. 

Paris  green  is  a  green  crystalline  powder  composed  of 
the  aceto-arsenite  of  copper.  When  properly  made  it 
should  contain  at  least  50  per  cent  arsenic  oxid  (AS2O5),  and 
there  should  be  as  little  soluble  arsenic  as  possible.  Various 
State  laws  require  that  there  be  not  over  3i  per  cent  soluble 
arsenic,  but  even  that  amount  often  injures  tender  foliage. 
Paris  green  is  rather  a  coarse  powder,  settles  readily  in 
water,  and  is  washed  off  by  drenching  rains  when  used  alone. 
It  is  usually  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  8  ounces  to  a  50- 
gallon  barrel  of  water,  5  ounces  to  the  barrel  being  satis- 
factory for  most  purposes.  If  stirred  up  into  a  paste  with  a 
little  water  it  will  mix  more  readily  and  uniformly.  Add  an 
equal  weight  of  quick  lime,  slightly  more  will  do  no  harm, 
which  will  help  neutralize  any  soluble  arsenic. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  sold  both  as  a  white  paste  and  as  a  pow- 
der. To  be  of  standard  grade  the  paste  should  contain  at 
least  121  per  cent  of  arsenic  oxid  and  not  over  f  per  cent 
water-soluble  arsenic  oxid,  and  not  over  50  per  cent  water. 
Owing  to  the  small  amount  of  soluble  arsenic  it  may  be  used 
in  much  larger  quantities  than  other  arsenicals  and  on  tender 
foliage  which  others  would  injure.  From  2  to  8  pounds  of 
the  paste  per  50-gallon  barrel  of  water  are  used,  2  to  3  pounds 
per  barrel  being  sufficient  for  most  of  the  pests  of  the  orchard 
and  garden.  Only  about  half  as  much  of  the  powdered  form 
is  required.  Arsenate  of  lead  remains  in  suspension  in 
water  better  than  Paris  green  and  is  much  more  adhesive. 
It  has,  therefore,  very  largely  displaced  Paris  green  and  is 
superior  to  it  for  most  purposes. 


INSECT  CONTROL  329 

Formerly  London  purple,  arsenite  of  lime,  and  other 
arsenicals  were  much  used,  but  the  above  are  practically 
the  only  arsenicals  now  having  a  general  use. 

Arsenate  of  Lime.  Recently  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology has  reported  favorably  upon  a  home-made  sub- 
stitute for  arsenate  of  lead,  made  of  lime  and  sodium  arsen- 
ate, according  to  the  following  formula: 

"Stone  Lime  (90%  CaO) 55  pounds 

Sodium  arsenate,  fused  (dry  pow- 
dered) 65%  AS2O5 100  pounds 

Water 26  gallons 

"Place  the  stone  lime  in  a  wooden  container  and  add 
a  small  amount  of  water,  just  enough  to  start  slaking.  When 
slaking  is  well  under  way,  pour  in  the  sodium  arsenate, 
which  should  first  have  been  dissolved  in  hot  water.  Keep 
stirring  until  the  lime  has  thoroughly  slaked.  Sufficient 
water  should  be  added  from  time  to  time  to  prevent  burning. 
The  resulting  arsenate  of  calcium  should  contain  about  18 
per  cent  of  arsenic  oxid,  or  slightly  more  than  in  average 
arsenate  of  lead  paste.  In  making  this  compound,  one 
should  know  approximately  the  calcium  oxid  and  arsenic 
oxid  of  the  materials  employed  and  vary  the  formula  ac- 
cordingly. 

"  In  the  experience  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  arsenate 
of  lime,  made  according  to  the  above  formula,  compares  fa- 
vorably with  arsenate  of  lead  in  killing  effect,  and  has  not 
caused  injury  to  foliage  of  plants  treated.  This  new  in- 
secticide, however,  must  still  be  regarded  in  its  experimental 
stage.  Its  cheapness  over  arsenate  of  lead  is  its  principal 
recommendation." 

Poisoned  Bran  Mash.  For  combating  grasshoppers  and 
cutworms  arsenic  is  often  employed  mixed  in  a  bran  mash. 


330  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Mix  one  pound  of  Paris  green  or  white  arsenic  colored  with 
a  dye  with  25  pounds  of  bran  or  middhngs.  Stir  a  quart  or 
two  of  cheap  molasses  into  a  gallon  of  water  and  moisten 
the  bran,  stirring  thoroughly,  until  it  makes  a  stiff  mash. 
Do  not  add  so  much  water  that  the  mash  will  be  thin  and 
will  cake  when  exposed.  Sow  broadcast  on  infested  fields. 
Keep  poultry  out  of  fields  thus  treated. 

Hellebore.  The  powdered  roots  of  white  hellebore  are 
often  used  as  an  insecticide  in  place  of  arsenicals,  especially 
for  currant  worms  and  similar  saw-fly  larvae  and  other  in- 
sects affecting  crops  soon  to  be  eaten,  as  the  hellebore  is 
much  less  poisonous  to  man  and  animals.  It  may  be  applied 
dry,  diluted  with  5  or  10  parts  of  flour,  or  as  a  spray  one 
ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water.  It  is  too  expensive  for  use  except 
on  a  few  plants  in  the  yard  or  garden  and,  like  pyrethrum,  it 
deteriorates  with  age. 

When  properly  applied  arsenical  insecticides  are  entirely 
harmless  to  man  and  animals.  It  has  been  shown  by  chem- 
ical analysis  that  cabbages  properly  dusted  with  Paris  green 
contain  so  small  an  amount  that  one  would  need  to  eat 
twenty-eight  of  them  at  once  to  be  poisoned.  Of  course, 
instances  of  poisoning  are  occasionally  recorded,  for  ignorant 
people  sometimes  seem  to  think  that  an  extra  large  amount 
of  poison  will  kill  the  insects  "deader"  and,  therefore,  apply 
an  unnecessary  amount,  particularly  when  dusting. 

2.  Contact  Insecticides.  Contact  insecticides  are  used 
against  insects  with  sucking  mouth-parts  and  against  soft- 
bodied  biting  insects,  which  may  be  more  readily  destroyed 
by  them  than  by  arsenicals.  The  chitinous  skin  of  an  insect 
is  not  easily  corroded  and  in  many  cases  a  substance  strong 
enough  to  penetrate  this  skin  will  also  injure  foliage;  hence 
only  soft-bodied  insects  can  be  safely  combated  with  cor- 
rosive  substances    on    foliage.     It   is   absolutely   essential 


INSECT  CONTROL  331 

that  contact  insecticides  hit  the  insects  which  they  are  to 
destroy,  for  the  mere  spraying  of  the  fohage  is  of  no  value 
whatever. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  one  of  the  oldest  remedies  for  plant 
lice  and  other  sucking  insects  and  is  often  used  because  it  is 
readily  made  and  the  materials  can  always  be  secured. 
Dissolve  one-half  pound  of  hard  soap  (or  one  quart  of  soft 
soap)  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water.  Add  two  gallons  of 
kerosene  and  churn  by  pumping  back  and  forth  into  itself 
for  fivB  or  ten  minutes  until  t-he  oil  is  thoroughly  emulsified, 
forming  a  creamy  mass  with  no  drops  of  free  oil  visible.  This 
stock  solution  can  then  be  diluted  so  that  the  resulting  mix- 
ture will  contain  the  desired  per  cent  of  kerosene.  Thus  for 
aphides  one  part  of  the  stock  solution  should  be  diluted 
with  10  to  15  parts  of  water,  giving  4  to  6  per  cent  of  kero- 
sene in  the  spray,  while  for  a  winter  wash  for  the  San  Jose 
scale  it  should  be  diluted  only  three  or  four  times,  giving 
16  to  22  per  cent  kerosene.  It  should  be  applied  with  a 
nozzle  throwing  a  fine  spray.  There  are  other  formulas 
for  making  the  emulsion  with  buttermilk  and  it  may  be 
made  with  crude  oil  instead  of  kerosene. 

Miscible  Oils  are  made  by  making  petroleum  soluble  by 
the  addition  of  vegetable  oils,  ''cut"  or  saponified  with  an 
alkali,  and  are  really  a  sort  of  liquid  petroleum  soap  which 
will  combine  readily  with  water.  They  are  used  principally 
as  winter  washes  against  the  San  Jose  scale,  for  which  they 
are  diluted  8  to  10  times.  For  a  summer  wash  they  have 
been  used  effectively  against  plant  lice  and  other  insects  for 
which  kerosene  emulsion  would  be  used,  diluted  25  to  30 
times. 

Whale-oil  mid  Other  Soaps.  Any  good  laundry  soap  made 
into  a  thick  solution  one-half  pound  per  gallon  is  an  excel- 
lent remedy  for  aphides  on  house  plants  and  small  bushes. 


332  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

Whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soap  has  been  used  extensively  against 
scale  insects  and  plant  lice,  particularly  by  nurserymen  and 
florists.  The  best  brands  are  made  from  caustic  potash 
rather  than  caustic  soda  and  should  not  contain  over  30 
per  cent  of  water.  For  most  aphides  one  pound  to  six 
gallons  is  effective. 

Pyrethrum,  Buhach,  or  Persian  insect  powder,  is  made  by 
pulverizing  the  petals  of  the  pyrethrum  blossom,  and  kills 
insects  by  clogging  their  breathing  pores.  It  is  used  chiefly 
for  household  pests  and  in  greenhouses  and  small  gardens. 
It  deteriorates  rapidly  with  age  and  should  be  kept  in  tight 
cans.  On  this  account  large  users  buy  directly  from  the 
only  American  manufacturers,  the  Buhach  Producing  Co., 
Stockton,  Cal.  It  may  be  used  as  a  dry  powder,  pure  or 
diluted  with  flour,  or  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to 
two  gallons,  which  should  stand  a  day  before  using.  For 
immediate  use  it  should  be  boiled  for  five  or  ten  minutes. 
It  is  often  burned  in  rooms  to  destroy  mosquitoes  and  flieS; 
as  it  leaves  no  odor  after  the  room  has  been  aired. 

Tobacco.  A  tobacco  decoction  may  be  made  by  steeping 
tobacco  leaves,  stems,  or  refuse  in  water  at  the  rate  of  1 
pound  to  1  or  2  gallons,  and  then  diluting  for  use  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  tobacco  and  the  insect  to  be  combated. 
Tobacco  decoction  is  much  used  for  dipping  plants  infested 
with  aphides  and  as  a  spray  against  aphides  and  similar  soft- 
bodied  insects.  Various  extracts  and  solutions  of  tobacco 
are  now  manufactured  for  use  against  plant  lice,  among  the 
best  of  which  is  "Black-leaf  40"  or  Nicotine  Sulphate,  and 
are  more  satisfactory  than  home-made  solutions  on  account 
of  their  uniform  strength.  Tobacco  dust  has  been  widely 
used  against  root-feeding  aphides  by  removing  the  surface 
soil  and  applying  a  liberal  dressing  and  then  covering.  The 
rains    leaching    through    the    tobacco    carry    the    tobacco 


INSECT  CONTROL  333 

water  to  the  affected  roots  and  destroy  or  repel  the 
aphides. 

Lime-sulphur  Solution.  This  is  now  the  leading  remedy 
for  the  San  Jose  scale,  as  well  as  the  pear  leaf  blister-mite, 
and  has  been  found  to  kill  a  large  percentage  of  aphis  eggs. 
It  is  also  an  excellent  fungicide,  and  spring  applications  just 
before  the  buds  open  are  very  effective  in  killing  out  the 
wintering  spores  of  various  fungous  diseases. 

The  usual  formula  is,  unslaked  stone  lune,  20  pounds; 
flowers  (or  flour)  of  sulphur,  15  pounds,  water  to  make  50 
gallons.  Stir  up  enough  water  with  the  sulphur  to  make  a 
thick  paste.  Slake  the  lime  in  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  to  be 
cooked  with  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water.  Then  add  the 
sulphur  paste  to  the  slaking  lime.  Add  10  or  15  gallons  of 
water  and  boil  for  forty-five  minutes.  The  mixture  may 
then  be  diluted  to  make  a  barrel  of  45  or  50  gallons,  straining 
it  carefully  into  the  spray  barrel  or  tank.  A  large  ii'on  kettle 
or  hog-scalder  may  be  used  for  boiling  the  wash,  or  where 
steam  can  be  made  available  a  steam  pipe  may  be  run  into 
several  barrels  and  the  wash  boiled  in  them.  Such  barrels 
may  well  be  placed  upon  a  platform  so  that  the  wash  may 
be  drawn  from  them  directly  into  the  spray-tank.  The 
leading  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  insecticides  are  now 
selling  concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution  which  is  all  ready 
for  use  by  merely  diluting  to  the  desired  strength.  In  many 
communities  a  central  plant  makes  the  wash  and  can  seU  it 
with  a  fair  profit  at  a  low  rate. 

Home-made  Concentrated  Lime-sulphur.  In  recent  years 
many  large  growers  have  been  making  their  own  concen- 
trated lime-sulphur  solution,  and  where  the  quantity  to  be 
used  warrants,  a  considerable  saving  may  be  effected.  The 
usual  formula  calls  for  50  pounds  of  fresh  stone  lime,  100 
pounds  of  commercial  ground  sulphur  and  water  sufficient 


334  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

to  make  50  gallons.  In  making  this  mixture  it  is  important 
that  only  high-grade,  pure  lime  should  be  used,  and  lime 
with  less  than  90  per  cent  calcium  oxid  (CaO) ,  should  be  dis- 
carded. The  following  directions  are  given  by  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station: 

"In  making,  slake  the  lime  in  about  10  gallons  of  hot 
water,  adding  the  lumps  of  lime  gradually  to  avoid  too  violent 
boiling  and  spilling  over.  .  .  .  The  sulphur  must  be  thor- 
oughly moistened  and  made  into  an  even,  fluid  paste  without 
lumps  (before  adding  to  the  lime).  .  .  .  Pour  in  the  sulphur 
paste  gradually  during  the  slaking,  stirring  constantly  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  lumps,  and  when  the  slaking  has  fin- 
ished add  the  full  amount  of  water  and  boil  gently  for  one 
hour.  If  kettles  and  fire  are  used,  more  than  the  required 
amount  of  water  may  be  used  at  first,  to  compensate  for 
evaporation,  or  the  volume  may  be  kept  constant  by  adding 
successive  small  quantities  to  hold  the  mixture  at  the  original 
level,  as  shown  by  a  notch  on  a  stick  resting  on  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle,  and  marked  when  the  mixture  first  begins  to 
boil.  When  boiling  with  live  steam  the  mixture  will  be  more 
likely  to  increase  in  volume  than  to  decrease,  so  that  no 
water  need  be  added. 

"  This  concentrate  will  keep  with  little  change,  unless  the 
weather  is  below  5°  F.,  if  stored  in  filled,  stoppered  barrels. 
Even  in  open  receptacles  there  will  be  no  loss  if  the  surface  be 
covered  by  a  layer  of  oil  to  prevent  access  of  air.  Each 
boiling  should  be  tested  with  a  Baume  hydrometer  *  and 
its  density  marked  on  the  barrels  or  other  containers." 

Below  is  given  a  table  from  which  can  be  determined  the 
amount  of  dilution  for  concentrates  for  each  degree  Baum^ 

*  These  hydrometers,  made  specially  for  testing  lime-sulphur  mix- 
ture, may  be  obtained  from  the  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  and  other  dealers  in  laboratory  glassware. 


INSECT  CONTROL 


335 


from    20   to    36,    and    the   corresponding    specific-gravity 
reading. 

Dilution  table  for-  concentrated  lime-sulphur  solutions.'^ 


Nvimber    gallons    concentrated    lime-sulphur    to 
make  50  gallons  spray  solution. 

Degrees 
Baum6. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Summer 

Winter  or  dormant  strength. 

or  foliage 
strength. 

San  Jos6  scale. 

Blister  mite. 

36 

1.330 

li 

5i 

41 

35 

318 

u 

51 

5 

34 

306 

15 

6 

5 

33 

295 

1^ 

61 

5i 

32 

283 

u 

6i 

5^ 

31 

272 

u 

61 

51 

30 

261 

If 

7 

6 

29 

250 

11 

n 

6i 

28 

239 

■■•4 

n 

6^ 

27 

229 

2 

8 

61 

26 

218 

2 

8i 

n 

25 

208 

2 

81 

n 

24 

198 

2i 

9i 

8 

23 

188 

2\ 

9f 

81 

22 

179 

2\ 

lOi 

8f 

21 

169 

2h 

11 

9i 

20 

160 

2\ 

lU 

91 

'  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  650,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 

3.  Gases.  Carbon  Bisulphide  is  extensively  used  against 
insects  affecting  stored  goods  and  grains,  and  for  root-feeding 
insects.  It  is  a  clear,  volatile  liquid  giving  off  fumes  heavier 
than  air.  It  may  be  thrown  directly  onto  grain  without 
injury  to  it  or  placed  in  shallow  dishes.  For  grain  in  store 
in  fairly  tight  rooms  apply  five  to  eight  pounds  to  every  100 
bushels,  distributing  the  bisulphide  over  the  surface  or  in  pans 
containing  not  over  one-half  of  one  pound  each.  Make  the 
enclosure  as  tight  as  possible,  covering  the  grain  with  blankets 
or  other  tight  cover,  if  necessary,  and  leave  for  twenty-four 
hours.     Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  the  vapor  is 


336  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

much  less  effective  at  low  temperatures  and  that  the  dosage 
must  be  greatly  increased  at  temperatures  below  60°  F. 
For  fumigating  buildings  "there  should  be  about  one  square 
foot  of  evaporating  surface  to  every  twenty-five  square  feet 
of  floor  area,  and  each  square  foot  of  evaporating  surface 
should  receive  from  one-half  to  one  pound  of  liquid."  For 
fumigating  clothing  or  household  goods,  place  them  in  a  tight 
trunk  and  place  an  ounce  of  liquid  in  a  saucer  just  under  the 
cover.  The  gas  is  exceedingly  explosive;  allow  no  fire  or  light 
of  any  kind  around  the  building  or  enclosure  until  it  has  been 
well  aired.  The  fumes  should  not  be  inhaled,  for  though  not 
seriously  poisonous,  they  have  a  suffocating  effect  and  will 
soon  produce  dizziness  and  a  consequent  headache.  Carbon 
tetrachloride  is  now  used  for  some  purposes  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  carbon  bisulphide,  and  is  not  so  explosive. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas  is  used  for  the  fumigation  of  nur- 
sery trees  and  plants,  certain  greenhouse  insects,  pests  of 
dwelling  houses,  storehouses,  mills,  etc.,  and  in  California 
for  scale  insects  on  fruit  trees.  It  is  made  by  combining 
cyanide  of  potassium,  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  gas  is 
slightly  lighter  than  air  and  is  a  most  deadly  poison.  It 
should  be  used  only  by  thoroughly  competent  and  careful 
persons  who  are  fully  advised  as  to  the  method  of  use  for 
the  particular  purpose  desired.  Concerning  its  use  advice 
should  be  sought  from  the  State  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  or  from  the  State  Entomologist,  or  from  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture.* 

Sulphur  Dioxid.     The  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  mostly 

sulphur  dioxid,  have  long  been  recognized  as  a  standard 

remedy  for  the  fumigation  of  dwellings  and  barracks  for 

insect  pests.     Successful  fumigation  for  the  bedbug  has  been 

*  See  Appendix  A,  No.  40. 


INSECT  CONTROL  337 

reported  when  stick  sulphur  has  been  bvn-necl  at  the  rate  of 
two  pounds  per  1000  cubic  feet  of  space.  Tlie  cliief  objection 
is  the  strong  bleaching  effect  of  the  fumes  in  presence  of 
moisture  and  their  destructive  action  on  vegetation.  The 
germinating  power  of  seeds  is  quickly  destroyed,  but  they 
are  not  injured  for  food.  One  to  five  per  cent  of  the  gas, 
with  an  exposure  of  twenty-four  hours,  is  effective  for  most 
seed  and  grain  pests.  It  cannot  be  used  on  vegetation  or 
for  moist  fruits,  and  tarnishes  brass,  nickel  or  gilt  and  may 
bleach  fabrics. 

Tobacco  Fumes.  Tobacco  is  extensively  used  as  a  fumi- 
gant  for  aphides  in  greenhouses  and  for  certain  plants,  such 
as  melons,  by  using  it  under  covers.  Several  forms  are  now 
commonly  used.  Tobacco  or  nicotine  extracts  are  sold 
under  various  trade  names  and  are  volatilized  by  heating 
either  with  a  small  lamp  or  by  dropping  hot  irons  into  the 
dishes  containing  the  fluid.  The  same  material  may  be  pur- 
chased in  the  more  convenient  form  of  paper  which  has  been 
saturated  with  the  extract  and  which  is  burned  according 
to  directions,  a  certain  amount  being  sufficient  for  so  many 
cubic  feet  of  space.  These  tobacco  preparations  are  excel- 
lent for  the  fumigation  of  household  plants,  which  may  be 
placed  in  a  closet  and  then  fumigated  according  to  the  direc- 
tions of  the  particular  brand  employed.  ]\Ielon  vines, 
young  apple  trees,  bush  fruits,  and  similar  outdoor  crops 
may  be  effectively^  rid  of  plant-lice  by  fumigating  with 
tobacco-paper  under  a  frame  covered  with  canvas  or  muslin 
sized  with  glue  or  linseed  oil. 

4.  Repellents  include  any  substances  which  may  be  ap- 
plied to  a  plant  or  animal  to  prevent  insect  attack.  A  pop- 
ular notion  that  any  vile-smelhng  substance  will  repel  insect 
attack  seems  to  have  very  little  evidence  for  its  support. 
Tobacco  dust,  air-slaked  lune,  or  even  fine  road  dust,  thor- 


338  SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY 

oughly  covering  a  plant  will  prevent  the  attack  of  various 
flea-beetles  and  leaf-eating  beetles,  but  to  be  effective  the 
plants  must  be  frequently  dusted  and  kept  well  covered. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  our  most  widely  used  fungicide,  when 
liberally  sprayed  on  potatoes  and  tomatoes,  acts  as  a  repel- 
lent to  keep  off  the  little  black  flea-beetles  which  often  seri- 
ously damage  the  young  plants. 

The  various  fly-sprays  which  are  used  for  spraying  cattle 
to  prevent  the  annoyance  of  flies  act  merely  as  repellents. 
Blue  ointment  is  sometimes  used  against  animal  parasites, 
evidently  affecting  them  as  a  repellent. 

Fruit  trees  are  often  painted  with  a  thick  soap  solution 
containing  1  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  10  gallons  as  a 
repellent  for  the  adult  borers  which  lay  their  eggs  on  the 
bark. 

Naphthalene  or  moth  balls  and  similar  substances  used 
for  driving  away  household  insects  are  effective  as  repellents. 

Various  proprietary  insecticides  are  frequently  offered 
for  sale  with  wonderful  claims  for  their  effect  as  repellents, 
but  only  in  rare  cases  are  they  of  any  value  except  for  use  as 
dust  as  already  suggested.* 

*  For  further  discussion  of  insecticides  see  Farmers'  Bulletin  127> 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX  A 

PUBLICATIONS    ON   INJURIOUS   INSECTS 

The  following  publications  may  be  secured  free  of  charge 
by  writing  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C,  or  to  your  Congressman  or  Senator,  for  those  pubhshed 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  to  the 
several  state  agricultural  experiment  stations,  whose  post- 
ofRces  are  given  below,  for  those  published  by  them.  The 
numbers  are  those  used  in  parentheses  ( )  in  the  text. 

Published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

1.  The  More  Important  Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Fruit 

and  Foliage  of  the  Apple.     Farmers'  Bulletin  492. 

2.  The  San  Jose  Scale  and  Its  Control.     Farmers'  Bulletin  650. 

3.  The  Oyster-shell  Scale  and  the  Scurfy  Scale.     Farmers'  Bulle- 

tin 723. 

4.  Orchard  Barkbeetles  and  Pinhole  Borers.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

763. 

5.  The  Aphides  Affecting  the  Apple.     Circular  81,  Bureau  of 

Entomology. 

6.  The  Oat  Aphis.     Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  No. 

112. 

7.  The  Pea  Aphis.     Circular  43,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

8.  The  Melon  Aphis.     Circular  80,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

9.  The  Apple-tree  Tent  Caterpillar.     Farmers'  Bulletin  662. 

10.  The  Principal  Insects  Affecting  the  Tobacco  Plant.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  120. 

11.  The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle.     Circular  87,  Bureau  of  Ento- 

mology. 

12.  Arsenate  of  Lead  as  an  Insecticide  Against  the  Tobacco  Horn- 

worms.    Farmers'  Bulletin  595. 
339 


340  APPENDIX  A 

13.  The  Common  Squash  Bug.     Circular  39,  Division  of  Ento- 

mology. 

14.  The  Imported  Cabbage  Worm.     Circular  60,  Bureau  of  Ento- 

mology. 

15.  Common  White  Grubs.    Farmers'  Bulletin  543. 

16.  The  Chinch  Bug.     Farmers'  Bulletin  657. 

17.  The  Spring  Grain  Aphis.     Circular  93,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

18.  The  Cotton  Bollworm.     Farmers'  Bulletin  290. 

19.  The  Cotton  Worm.     Circular  153^  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

20.  The  Boll  Weevil  Problem.     Farmers'  Bulletin  512. 

21.  The  Ox  Warble.     Circular  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 

22.  Texas  or  Tick  Fever.     Farmers'  Bulletin  569. 

23.  The  Horn  Fly.     Circular  115,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

24.  Repellents  for  Protecting  Animals  from  the  Attacks  of  Flies. 

Bulletin  131. 

25.  Mites  and  Lice  on  Poultry.     Circular  92,  Bureau  of  Entomol- 

ogy. 

26.  House  Flies.     Farmers' Bulletin  679. 

27.  The  Stable  Fly.     Farmers' Bulletin  540. 

28.  The  Yellow-fever  Mosquito.     Farmers'  Bulletin  547. 

29.  Fleas  as  Pests  of  Man  and  Animals.     Farmers'  Bulletin  683. 

30.  The  True  Clothes  Moths.     Farmers'  Bulletin  659. 

31.  Cockroaches.     Farmers'  Bulletin  658. 

32.  The  Bedbug.     Farmers'  Bulletin  754. 

33.  House  Ants.     Farmers'  Bulletin  740. 

34.  Some  Facts  About  Malaria.     Farmers'  Bulletin  450. 

35.  Sheep  Scab.     Farmers'  Bulletin  713. 

36.  Methods  of  Exterminating  the  Texas-fever  Tick.       Farmers' 

Bulletin  498. 

37.  Some  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grains.     Farmers'  Bulletin  45. 

38.  Remedies    and    Preventives    Against    Mosquitoes.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  444. 

39.  The  Sanitary  Privy.     Farmers'  Bulletin  463. 

40.  The  Pear  Slug.     Circular  26,  Division  of  Entomology. 

40a.  The  Roundheaded  Apple-tree  Borer.     Farmers'  Bulletin  675. 
406.  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas  Against  Household  Insects.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  699. 
40c.   Flytraps  and  their  Operation.     Farmers'  Bulletin  734. 
40d.  Grasshopper  Control.     Farmers'  Bulletin  747. 


APPENDIX  A  341 

Published  by  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 
(for  addresses  see  below) 

41.  Orchard  Bark  Beetles  and  Piii  Hole  Borers.     Bulletin  264, 

Ohio  Agricultural  Exi)eriment  Station. 

42.  Insects  Injurious  to  the  Peach  Trees  of  New  Jersey.     Bulletin 

235,  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

43.  The  Apple-tree  Tent  Caterpillar.     Bulletin  177,  Connecticut 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

44.  The  Cabbage  Aphis.     Bulletin  300,  Cornell  University  Agri- 

cultural Experiment  Station. 

45.  Potato  Flea-beetle.     Bulletin  211,  Maine  Agricultural  Experi- 

ment Station. 

46.  The  House  Mosquito.     Bulletin  216,  New  Jersey  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station. 

47.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Household.     Bulletin  253,  Ohio  Agricul- 

tural Experiment  Station. 

48.  An  Outbreak  of  Gadflies  in  Kentucky.     Bulletin  151,  Ken- 

tucky Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

49.  Sheep  Scab.     Bulletin  143,  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station. 

50.  Some  Common  Poultry  Parasites.     Circular,  West  Virginia 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

51.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Household.     Bulletin  253,  Ohio  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station. 

52.  Mill  and  Stored  Grain  Insects.     Bulletin  189,  Kansas  Agricul- 

tural Experiment  Station. 

53.  Making  and  Using  Concentrated  Lime-sulphur  Wash.     Bulle- 

tins 329  and  330,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

54.  The  Chinch  Bug.     Bulletin  191,  Kansas  Agricultural  Experi- 

ment Station. 

55.  The  Corn  Earworm.     Bulletin,  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experi- 

ment Station. 

56.  The  Hessian  Fly.     Bulletin  188,  Kansas  Agricultural  Experi- 

ment Station. 

57.  The  Mosquitoes  of  New  Jersey  and  their  Control.     Bulletin 

276,  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

58.  Plant  Lice  Injurious  to  Apple  Orchards.     Bulletin  415,  New 

York  (Geneva)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


342 


APPENDIX  A 


Addresses  of  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  and  of 
State  Entomologists. 

Teachers  and  Students  should  write  to  the  experiment  station 
and  state  entomologist  of  their  state  for  all  available  publications 
concerning  insects. 


Alabama,  Auburn. 

Arizona,  Phoenix. 

Arkansas,  Fayetteville. 

California,  Berkeley. 

California  State  Horticultural 
Board,  at  Sacramento. 

Colorado,  Fort  Collins. 

Connecticut,  New  Haven. 

Delaware,  Newark. 

Florida,  Gainesville. 

Georgia,  State  Entomologist, 
Atlanta. 

Hawaii,  Honolulu. 

Idaho,  Moscow. 

Illinois,  State  Entomologist,  Ur- 
bana. 

Indiana,  Lafayette. 

Indiana  State  Entomologist,  In- 
dianapolis. 

Iowa,  Ames. 

Kansas,  Manhattan. 

Kentucky,  Lexington. 

Louisiana,  Baton  Rouge. 

Maine,  Orono. 

Maryland,  College  Park. 

Massachusetts,  Amherst. 

Michigan,  East  Lansing. 

Minnesota,  University  Farm 
St.  Paul. 

Mississippi,  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

Missouri,  Columbia. 


Montana,  Bozeman. 

Nebraska,  Lincoln. 

Nevada,  Reno. 

New  Hampshire,  Durham. 

New  Jersey,  New  Brunswick. 

New  Mexico,  State  College. 

New  York,  Geneva. 

New  York  Cornell  University 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Ithaca. 

New  York  State  Entomologist, 
Albany. 

North  Carolina,  State  Entomol- 
ogist, Raleigh. 

North  Dakota,  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

Ohio,  Wooster. 

Oklahoma,  Stillwater. 

Oregon,  Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania,  State  Zoologist, 
Harrisburg. 

South  Carolina,  Clemson  Col- 
lege. 

South  Dakota,  Brookings. 

Tennessee,  Knoxville. 

Texas,  College  Station. 

Utah,  Logan. 

Virginia,  Blacksburg. 

Washington,  Pullman. 

West  Virginia,  Morgantown. 

Wyoming,  Laramie. 

Wisconsin,  Madison. 


APPENDIX    B 

Books  on  Injurious  Insects 

Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchartl,  E.  Dwight  Sanderson. 

John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  1912. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables,  F.  H.  Chittenden.     Orange  Judd 

Co.,  New  York,  1907. 
^Manual  of  Fruit  Insects,  IM.  V.  Shngerland  and  C.  R.  Crosby. 

Macmillau  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 
Insects  Injurious  to  the  Household,  Glen  \V.  Herrick.     Macmillan 

Co.,  New  York,  1914. 
Injurious    Insects,  W.  C.  O'Kane.     Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 

1912. 
Handbook  of  Medical  Entomology,  Riley  and  Johannsen,     Com- 

stock  Publishing  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1914. 
Medical  and  Veterinary  Entomology,  Herms.     Macmillan. 

Books  Valuable  for  Reference  Shelves  in  the  Library  of  the 
Secondary  School 

Manual  for  the  Stud.y  of  Insects,  Comstock.     Comstock  Publishing 

Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
American  Insects.    Kellogg.     Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Insect  Book,  Howard.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Moth  Book,  Holland.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Butterfly  Book,  Holland.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,   New 

York. 
Directions  for  the  Collection  and  Preservation  of  Insects,  Banks. 

U.  S.  National  Museum,  Bulletin  67,  Washington,  D.  C.  Also, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  606,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Many  more  are  valuable  and  desirable;   the  ones  cited  are  the 
most  generall}^  useful  and,  with  the  ones  mentioned  in  the  previous 
list,  will  make  a  very  adec^uate  hbrary  for  the  ordinary  school  on 
the  subject  of  insects. 

343 


344  APPENDIX  B 


Dealers  in  Collectors'  Supplies  and  Laboratory  Materials 

Ward's  Natural  Science  Establishment,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

The  Kn5'--Scheerer  Co.,  New  York. 

The  Simplex  Net  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Spencer  Lens  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  , 

Central  Scientific  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Southern  Biological  Supply  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 


INDEX 


Abdomen,  8 

Acanthiiike,  60,  188 

ACARINA,  21 

Acrididce,  48,  241 

ACXTLEATA,   143 

Adaptations,  15 
Adult,  28 
Aedes  calopus,  184 
Agarislidoe,  85 
Affrolis  annexa,  287 

messoria,  286 
Ajax  Ixitterfly,  96 
Alabama  argillacea,  257 
Alfalfa  grasshopper,  51 

weevil,  126 
Alsophila  pometaria,  311 
American  Acridium,  51 
Atiasa  tristis,  281 
Angle-wing  Ijutterflies,  102 
Agoumois  grain-moth,  78,  231 
AmsopTERA,  42 
Anopheles,  133 
Antennae,  4,  16 
Anthomyiida;,  140 
Atithonomus  grandis,  259 
Anthrenus  scrophularite,  222 
Ant-lions,  45 
Ants,  152 

Argentine,  217 

black  pavement,  217 

house,  216,  340 

little  black,  217 

little  red,  216 


Aorta,  11 

Aphidid(r,    64,     246,     268,     295, 

302 
Aphids,  64 
Aphis,  apple,  303,  339,  341 

black  peach,  305 

cabbage,  268,  341 

cherry,  black,  308 

English  grain,  246 

German  grain,  247 

green  f)each,  306 

hop,  307 

mealy  jilum,  307 

melon,  270,  339 

oat,  248,  304,  339 

pea,  269,  339 

rosy  apple,  303 

rusty  brown  plum,  308 

spinach,  269 

spring  grain,  248,  340 

woolly  apple,  295 
Aphis  avence,  304,  339 

brassicoe,  268 

gossypii,  270,  339 

persiar-niger,  305 

pomi,  303,  339 

setarice,  308 

sorhi,  203 
Aphis  lions,  46 
Apis  mellifera,  144 
Apoidea,  144 
Apple-aphis,  303,  339 

woolly,  295 
345 


346 


INDEX 


Apple-caterpillar,     yellow-necked , 

315 
Apple  curculio,  126 
Apple-tree  borers,  292,  340 
Apple  weevil,  126 
Aqiuitic  beetles,  110 
Aquatic  bugs,  56 
Arachnida,  21,  203,  207,  209 
Araneida,  21 
Arciiidce,  81,  309 
Argynnid  butterflies,  101 
Army-worms,  80 
Arsenate  of  lead,  328,  339 
Arsenate  of  lime,  329 
Arthropoda,  1,  19 
Asilid(v,  135 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  287,  339 
Assassin-bugs,  60 
Astyanax  butterfly,  102 
Allagenus  piceus,  223 
Autographa  brassicoe,  284 

Back-swimmers,  58 
Bag-worms,  87 
Balaninus,  125 
Bean-weevil,  122,  225 
Beautiful  wood-nymph,  85 
Bed-bugs,  60,  188,  340 
Bee-flies,  137 
Bee-moth,  76 
Bees,  144 
Beetles,  107 
Berytid(P,  61 
Bill-bugs,  126 
Bird-lice,  37 
Biting  cattle-louse,  199 
Biting-lice,  37 
Bittacus,  46 
Black-flies,  136 
Black  swallow-tail,  95 
Blastophaga,  160 
Blister-beetles,  122 


Blattidce,  52,  214 

Blissus  leucopterus,  238 

BloT^-fly,  141 

Blud  butterflies,  99 

Body-covering,  17 

Boll  weevil,  259,  340 

Bollworm,  253,  34Tr 

Bombycidce,  91 

Bomhyliidw,  137 

Book-lice,  35 

Boring  Hymenoptera,  143,  154 

Bot-flies,  139 

BraconidcE,  158 

Brain,  13 

Bran  mash,  poisoned,  329 

Breeding  cages,  171 

Bristle-tails,  34 

Brownie-bugs,  64 

Brown-tail  moth,  85 

larvse,  17 
Bruchidce,  122,  224,  225 
Bruchus  obtectus,  225 

pisorum,  224 
Bubonic  plague,  39 
Bud-moth,  77 
Buffalo-gnat,  136 
Buffalo-moth,  113,  223 
Buffalo  tree-hopper,  64 
Bugs,  56 
Buhach,  332 
Bumble-bees,  147 
Buml)le-beetles,  119 
Buprestidce,  115 
Burning,  326 
Burying  beetles,  112 
Butterflies,  72,  93 

Cabbage  aphis.  268,  341 
butterfly,  98 
caterpillaf7^82,  340 
looper,  81 
worm,  282,  340 


INDEX 


347 


Caddice  flies,  46 

worms,  47 
Cadellc,  229 
Calandra  yranaria,  227 

oryzce,  227 
Calandridce,  126,  227 
Caliroa  cerasi,  316 
Canker-worms,  87,  311 
Cantharide<,  123 
CajM-ifigs,  160 
Capsidce,  58 
Carabidcr,  109 
Care  of  collection,  173 
Carolina  locust,  51 
Carpenter-bee,  147 
Carpenter-moths,  79 
Carpet-beetle,  222 
Carrion  Vieetles,  112 
Case-liearers,  76 
Caterpillars,  33,  72 
Calhartus  gemellatus,  229 
Catocalas,  81 
Cattle-Uce,  198 
Cattle-tick,  209 
Cave-crickets,  52 
Cccidomyiidce,  134,  250 
Cecropia,  91 
Centipedes,  20 
Cephalathorax,  19 
Cerainbycidce,  120,  292 
Ceralocampidoe,  92 
CercopidcE,  63 
Chalcidoidea,  154,  159 
Chalcis-flies,  154,  159 
Cherry,  black  louse,  308 
Chinch-l)ug,  60,  238,  340,  341 
Chionasjns  furfura,  290,  339 
Chitin,  8 

Cresphontes  butterfly,  97 
Chrysalis,  32,  95 
Chrysomelid(v,  121,  272,  276,  279 
Chrysojyidce,  46 


Cicada,  50,  61 
Cicindelida',  108 
Cimex  lectulariu^,  188 
Circulatory  system,  11 
Classification  of  animals,  1   ^^---^ 

insects,  23 
Clear-wing  sphinx,  90 
Click-beetles,  114 
Clothes-moths,  77,  230,  340 
Cloudless  sulphur,  98 
C'lover  l)utterflies,  98 
Clover-hay  worm,  76 
Coccidw,  64,  287,  289,  290 
Cocdnellidoe,  112 
Cockroaches,  214,  340 
Cocoon,  30 
Codhng-moth,  77,  319 

COLEOPTERA,   107 

Genuina,  107 

table  of  families,  128 
Collection,  163 
Colon,  11 
Colorado  potato-beetle,  121,  276, 

339 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  299 
Copper  butterflies,  99 
Corcidcc,  59,  281 
Corisidce,  58 
Corn  bill-bugs,  127 
Corn  earworm,  80,  253,  341 

CORRODENTIA,  35 

CossidcB,  79 

Cotton  boll  weevil,  126,  259,  340 

bollworm,  80,  253,  340 

worm,  81,  257 
Cottony  cushion-scale,  66 
Corydalis,  16,  44 
Coxa,  7 
Crabs,  19 
Crane-flies,  134 
Cray-fish,  19 
Crickets,  48,  52 


348 


INDEX 


Crop,  10 

Crop  rotation,  324 
Croton-bug,  214 
Crustacea,  19 
Ctenocephalus  canis,  186 
Cucujidce,  113,  228 
Culex  pipiens,  183 
Culicidce,  133,  183 
Ciirculionidce,  135,  259,  299 
Curculios,  125 
Currant-borer,  79 
Cutworms,  80,  286 
Cybele  butterfly,  102 
Cydia  pomonella,  319 
Cynipoidea,  154,  156 

Daddy  long-legs,  21 
Dainty  sulphur,  98 
Damsel-flies,  42 
Darkling  beetles,  123 
Datana,  83 

ministra,  315 
Day-flies,  42 
Deer-fly,  136 
Dermanyssus  gallince,  207 
Dermestidce,  113,  223, 
Development,  direct,  28 

indirect,  28,  29 
Devil's  darning-needles,  42 
Diabrotica  viltala,  279 
Differential  locust,  51,  242 
Digestive  tract,  9 
Digger-wasps,  151 

DiPTERA,  131 

Disonycha  xanthomelana,  275 
Dobson-fly,  44 
Dog's-head  butterfly,  99 
Doodle-bugs,  45 
Dragon-flies,  42 

nymphs,  16 
Drone-fly,  138 
Drones,  145 


Dryocampa,  92 
Dytiscidae,  111 

Ear-fly,  136 
Earwigs,  38,  112 
Ectobia  germanica,  214 
Eight-spotted  forester,  85 
Ejaculatory  duct,  14 
Elatcridce,  114 
Electric-light  Inig,  56 
Elm-leaf  beetle,  122 
Elytra,  107 
Emesidce,  61 
Empodium,  7 
Ephemerida,  42 
Ephestia  kuehniella,  230 
Epicranium,  4 
Epitrix  cuctwieris,  272 

parvula,  273 
Eriosorna  lanigera,  295 
Eudeidce,  88 

EUPLEXOPTERA,  38 

Euploeinoe,  101 
Evergreen  bagworm,  87 
Exoskeleton,  9 
Exuvia,  29 
Eyed  Elater,  114 
Eyes,  simple,  5 
compound,  5 

Fall  web-worm,  82,  309 

Fat  body,  15 

Femur,  7 

Fertilization,  325 

Fiery-eyes,  80 

Hgs  and  insects,  160 

Fire-flies,  116 

Fish-moth,  34 

Plat-headed  borers,  115,  294 

Hea-beetles,  121,  272 

Fleas,  38,  186,  340 

Flesh-flies,  140 


INDEX 


349 


Flies,  131 

classification,  132 

horse,  200 

house,  175 

stable,  180 
Flour-moths,  230 

beetles,  119 
Fly  larvae,  132 
Formicidce,  216 
Fonnicoidea,  153 
Fritillaries,  101 
Front,  6 
Fruit-flies,  140 
Fruit-tree  bark-beetle,  127,  291, 

339,  341 
Fulgoridce,  63 
Fungus  gnats,  134 

Gad-flies,  136,  139 
Gall-flies,  154,  156 
Ganglia,  13 
Gases,  335 

Gastrophilus  equi,  190 
Gense,  6 

Genuina,  Coleoptera,  108 
Geometridce,  86 
Giant  silk-worm,  91 
Giant  water-bug,  56 
Golden-eyes,  46 
Gossamer-wings,  99 
Gnats,  131,  134 
Grain  aphides,  246 

beetles,  124,  226,  228 

insects,  226,  340,  341 

moths,  231 

weevils,  226 
Granary  weevils,  126,  227 
Grape-leaf  folder,  76 
Grasshoppers,  48,  241,  340 
Green-bugs,  248 
Ground  beetles,  109 
Grul)s,  107 


Gryllid(T,  52 
Gypsy-moth,  85 
(ri/nitido',  110 

Ilwmalopinus  eurysternus,  198 

urius,  198 

I'iluli,  198 
Hair-streaks,  99 
HaltereS;  131 

Harlequin  cabbage-bug,  59 
Harvest-flies,  61 
Harvestmen,  21 
Hawk  moths,  89 
Head,  4 
Heart,  11 
Heel-flies,  139 
Helgramites,  125 
Heliolhis  obsoleta,  253 
Hellebore,  330 
Hcematobia  serrata,  125 
Hemiptera,  38,  56 

table  of  families,  59 
Hen-louse,  206 
Hesperiina,  93,  103 
Hessian-fly,  134,  250,  341 
Heteroptera,  56 
Hexapoda,  23 
Hickory  horned-devil,  92 
Hippoboscidoe,  139,  202 
Homoptera,  61,  64 
Honey-bee,  144 
Honey-dew,  17 
Hop  plant-louse,  307 
Hornets,  148 
Horn-fly,  141,  195,  340 
Horn-tails,  154 
Horn-worms,  90 
Horse-bots,  139,  190 
Horse-flies,  136,  200,  341 
House-fly,  140,  141,  175,  340 
Humming-l)ird  moths,  89,  90 
Hundred-legged  worms,  20 


350 


INDEX 


Hyalopterus  arundinis,  307 
Hydrohatidoe,  58 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  336,  340 
Hydrophiliike,  111 
Hymenoptera,  142 

table  of  families,  161 
Hyphantria  cunea,  309 
Hypoderma  lineata,  193 
Hypopharynx,  17 
Hurnljle-bees,  147 

Ichneumon  flies,  154 
Ichneumonidce,  157 

ICHNEUMONOIDEA,  154, 

Idalia  butterfly,  102 
Ileum,  11 
Imago,  28 
Imperial  moth,  92 
Imported  cal)l:)agc-\vorm,  98 
Imported  currant-worm,  156 
Inch  worms,  86 
Indian  meal-moth,  76,  230 
Insect  boxes,  166 

control,  323 

definition,  4 
Insecticides,  327 
Internal  organs,  9 
Intestine,  11 
lo  moth,  91 

Iridoniyrmex  humilis,  217 
Isabella  tiger-moth,  82 

ISOPTERA,  36 

Isosoma  grandi,  160 
tritici,  160 

Jar-flies,  61 
Jassidoe,  63 
Joint,  8 

Jointed  spiders,  22 
June-bugs,  118,  236 

Katydids,  48,  51,  52 


Kerosene  emulsion,  331 
Kidney  tubules,  11 
Killing  bottles,  163 

Labium,  5 
Labrum,  5 
Lac,  17 

Lace-wing  flies,  46 
Lachnoslerna,  236 
Lady-bugs,  112 
Lamellicorn  beetles,  116 
Lampyridce,  116 
Land-bugs,  58 
Lantern-bugs,  116 
Lantei'n-flies,  63 
Larder-beetles,  114 
Larva?,  30,  33 
Lasiocampidcp,  88,  213 
Leaf  beetles,  121 
Leaf-bugs,  58 
Leaf-hoppers,  63 
Leaf-rollers,  76 
Lepidoptera,  72 

table  of  families,  105 
Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  290 
Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  276 
Lice,  t)ird,  37 

cattle,  198 

poultry,  206 

true,  37 
Leplidoe,  138 
Life  cycle,  31 
Lightning-l)ugs,  116 
Lilac-borer,  79 
Lime-sulphur  solution,  333 
Liparidce,  84  .  - 

Lithosiidce,  85       ^--^ 
Lolisters,  19 
Locust-borer,  121 
Locust  leaf-beetle,  122 
LocusHdce-,  50,  51 
Locusts,  48,  241 


INDEX 


351 


Long-horned  wood-borers,  120 
Long-nosed  ox-louse,  198 
Loopers,  S6 
Lucanifhr,  120 
Luminescent  insects,  18 
Luna  moth,  91 
Lyccenidcv,  99 
Lygcpidcr,  60,  238 
Lysiphlebus,  249 

Macro-Lepidoptera,  75 
Macrosiphum  cercalis,  247 

granaria,  246 

pisi,  269 
ALaggots,  131 

Mniacosoma  americana,  313 
Mallophaga,  37,  199,  206 
Malpighian  tubes,  11 
Mandibles,  5 
Maniidcp,  53 
Mantis,  54 
Maple-worms,  83 
Margaropus  annulatus,  209 
Maxillae,  5 

May-beetles,  118,  236 
Mayetiola  destructor,  250 
May-flies,  42,  68 
Meadow-browns,  102 
Meadow  grasshoppers,  52 
Meal-moths,  230 
Meal  snout-moths,  76,  231 
Meal-worms,  124,  229 
Mealy-bugs,  65 
Measuring-worms,  86 
Mecoptera,  46 
Medical  Entomology,  132 
Mediterranean  flour-moth,  76,  230 
Mediterranean  fruit-fly,  141 
Melanoplus  atlantis,  241 

binttatiis,  242 

devastator,  241 

differentialis,  242 


Melanoplus  fcmur-riihrum,  241 

Meloida-,  122 

Melon  aphis,  270 

Melon-worm,  7<) 

Mdophacins  oi'inus,  202 

Mcmhracidw,  63 

Mcnopon  pnlliduin,  206 

Mesothorax,  6 

Metallic  wood-borers,  115 

Metamorphosis,  28,  31 

Metathorax,  6 

Mexican  cotton  boll  weevil,  259 

Micro-Lepidoptera,  75 

Micropyle,  14 

Microscopes,  174 

Midaida;,  136 

Midas-flies,  136 

Midges,  131,  134 

Mid-intestine,  11 

Millers,  79 

MilHpedes,  20 

Mimicry,  102 

Mites,  21 

Mole-crickets,  52 

Monarch  butterfly,  101 

Monomorium  minimum,  217 

pharaonis,  216 
Mosquitoes,  131,  133,  183,340,341 
Mosquito  hawks,  42 
Moths,  72 
Moulting,  29 
Mounting  insects,  165 
Mourning-cloak,  101 
Mouth,  9 
Mud-daubers,  151 
Mud-wasps,  151 
Mule-killers,  42 
Mully-grubs,  119 
Musca  domestka,  175 
Muscida,  140,  141,  175,  180,  195 
Muscina,  139 
Muscular  system,  15 


352 


INDEX 


Myceiophilidcp,  134 
Myriapoda,  19 
MyrmeleonidcE,  45 
Myzus  cerasi,  308 
persicce,  269,  306 

Natural  selection,  102 

Nepidoe,  58 

Nervous  system,  13 

Neuroptera,  41 

Nits,  163 

Noctuidcp,  79,  253,  257,  266,  284 

Nolodontidce,  83,  315 

N otoneclidce ,  58 

Notum,  6 

Nut-weevils,  125 

Nymphs,  28 

Nymphalidce,  100 

Occiput,  6 
Ocelli,  5 
Odonata,  42 
Q^]sophagus,  10 
(Estridce,  139,  190,  191,  193 
(Estris  ovis,  191 
Orange-tips,  99 
Orchard  caterpillars,  309 
Orders  of  insects,  24 
Orthoptera,  48 

table  of  families,  54 
Ovaries,  13 
Oviduct,  13 
Ovipositor,  8,  14 
Owlet-moths,  80 
Ox-warbles,  193,  340 
Oyster-shell  scale,  66,  289,  339 

Paleacrita  vernala,  311 
Palpus,  6 
Papilionidcn,  94 
Papilionina,  93 
Parasitica,  38,  157 


Parasitic  Hymenoptera,  157 
Paris  green,  328 
Parnassians,  94 
Parthenogenesis,  14,  67 
Pea-aphis,  269 
Pea-weevil,  122,  224 
Peach  scale,  66 
Peach-tree  borer,  79,  297,  341 
Pear-leaf  blister-mite,  21 
Pear-slug,  156,  316,  340 
Pentatomidre,  59 
Periplaneta  americana,  215 

australasice,  215 

orientalis,  215 
Perlidce,  42 

Persian  insect  powder,  332 
Phasmidce,  53 
Philenor  butterfly,  97 
Pharynx,  9 

Phlegethontius    quinquemaculat  us, 
278 

sexta,  278 
Phorodon  humidi,  307 
Phyllolreta  vittata,  274 
Physopoda,  39 
Pickle-worm,  76 
Pieridce,  98,  282,  284 
Pill-bugs,  19 
Pinching-bugs,  120 
Pinning  insects,  168 
Plant  galls,  156 
Plant-hoppers,  63 
Plant-lice  (See  Aphis),  64,  66 
Planting  time,  325 
Plecoptera,  41 
Pleuron,  6 

Plodia  inter punctella,  230 
Plowing,  326 
Plum  aphis,  307 
Plum  curculio,  125,  299 
Plum,  rusty  brown,  aphis,  308 
Poisons,  327 


INDEX 


353 


Polisteii,  149 
Polyphemus  moth,  91 
Ponlia  protodicc,  284 

rapiF,  282 
Potato-beetle,  Colorado,  27(5,  339 
Potato-bug,  121 
Potato  flea-beetle,  272,  341 
Poultry-lice,  206,  340 
Poultry  mites,  207,  340 
Prajdng  mantis,  48,  54 
Predaceous  diving-beetle,  111 
Proctotrypoidea,  154,  158 
Promethea  moth,  91 
Pro thorax,  6 
Proventriculus,  10 
Pseudo-Neuroptera,  41 
Pseudo-scorpions,  22 
Psoroptes  communis,  203 
Psocids,  35 
Psychidie,  87 
Pupa,  30 

Purple  emperor,  102 
Pyralidce,  230 
Pyralidina,  75 
Pyralis  farinalis,  231 
Pyrethrum  powder,  332 

Queen-bee,  145 

Rat-tailed  maggots,  139 
Rear-horses,  48,  53 
Rectum,  7 
Red  admiral,  101 
Red-necked  cane-borer,  115 
Reduviid.b,  60 
Regal  moths,  92 
Repellents,  337 
Reproductive  system,  13 
Respiratory  system,  12 
Rhinoceros-beetle,  120 
Rhynchophora,  107,  125 
Rice-wee\'il,  126,  227 


Roaches,  48,  52 

Robber-flies,  135 

Rocky  Mountain  locust,  51,  241 

Rocky  Mt.  spotted-fever,  22 

Rose-chafers,  119 

Rose-scale,  66 

Rose-slug,  156 

Rosy  Dryocampa,  92 

Round-headed  apple  tree-borer, 

121,  340 
Round-headed  Ijorers,  120 
Rove-beetles,  112 
Royal  moths,  92 

.Salivarj'  glands,  17 

San  Jose  scale,  66,  287,  339 

Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  297 

Saperda  Candida,  292 

Sarcophagidce,  140 

Salurniidce,  91 

Saturniina,  91 

Saw-flies,  154,  155 

Saw-toothed    grain    beetles,    113, 

228 
Scale  insects,  64 
Scarabceidce,  117,  236 
Scarabs,  118 
Scavenger-beetles,  111 
Scent  glands,  17 
Scent  organs  of  butterflies,  95 
Schistocerca  americana,  242 
Scientific  names,  2 
Scohjtidce,  291 
Scolytoidea,  127 
Scohjtus  rugulosus,  291 
Scorpions,  22 
Scorjiion-flies,  46 
Screw- worm  flics,  141 
Scurfy-scale,  290,  339 
Seminal  tubes,  14 
Seminal  vesicle,  14 
Senator  moth,  92 


354 


INDEX 


Sesiido',  79,  297 

Seventeen-year  locust,  61 

Shad-flies,  42,  136 

Sheep  bot-fly,  191 

Sheep    scab-mite,    21,    203,    340, 

341 
Sheep-tick,  139,  202 
Short-nosed  ox-louse,  198 
Short-winged  scavengers,  112 
Shot-hole  jjorers,  127 
Shrimps,  19 
Sialidcp,  45 
Silk  glands,  17 
Silkworm,  91 
Silphidce,  112 
Silvanus  surinamensis,  228 
Silver-fish,  34 
Silver-spot  skipper,  103 
Silver-spots,  101 
Simuliidoe,  136 

SiPHONAPTERA,  38,  186 
SiPHUNCULATA,  37,  198 

Siricidce,  154 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  231 
Skippers,  93,  103 
Slug-caterpillars,  88 
Smell,  17 
Snake-doctors,  42 
Snake-feeders,  42 
Snapping-jjugs,  114 
Snipe-flies,  138 
Snout-beetles,  108,  125 
Snow-flea,  35 
Social-wasps,  149 
Soldier-l>ugs,  59 
Soldier-flies,  137 
Solitary-wasps,  150 
Sow-bugs,  19 
Spanish-fly,  123 
Span-worms,  86 
Special  organs,  15 
Spermatheca,  14 


Sphecoidea,  151 

Sphingidce,  89,  278 

Sphinx  moths,  89 

Spiders,  21 

Spinach  aphis,  269 

Spinach  flea-beetle,  275 

Spined  soldier-bug,  £9 

Spiracles,  8,  12 

Spittle  insects,  63 

Spotted  pclidnota,  120 

Spreading-]  )oard,  170 

Spring-tails,  34 

Squash-bugs,  59,  ^^  340 

Squash-vine  borer,-^9 

Stable  fly,  141,  180,  340 

Stag-beetles,  120 

Staphylinido',  112 

Sternum,  6 

Stilt-bugs,  61 

Stinging  Hymenoptera,  143 

Stinging  organs,  14 

Stink-bugs,  58 

Stomach,  15 

Stomoxys  calcilrans,  180 

Stone-flies,  41 

Stratiotmjiido',  137 

Strawberry  leaf-roller,  77 

Strawberry-weevil,  126 

Striped  cucumber-l^eetle,  279 

Sub-ocsophageal  ganglion,  13 

Sucking-Uce,  37 

Sulphur  butterflies,  98 

Sulphur  dioxide,  336 

Supra-ccsophageal  ganglion,  13 

Suture,  8 

Swallow-tail  ])utterflies,  94 

Swarming  bees,  146 

Sweat-flies,  138 

Sympathetic  nervous  system,  13 

Syrphidce,  138 

Syrphus  flies,  138 

Systctia  hlanda,  274 


INDEX 


355 


Tahanidxr,  ISC),  20!) 
Tahanus  alralus,  200 

lineola,  200 
Tachina  flies,  140 
Tachinidir,  140 
Tapestry-moth,  221 
Tarnished  i)laiit-l)Ug,  58 
Tarsus,  7 
Taste,  16 

Tenehrionidce,  123,  229 
Tcncbrio  molilor,  229 

obscurus,  229 
Tenebroides  maurilanicus,  229 
Tent-caterpillars,  SS,  313,  339,  341 
Tenlhredinidce,  316 

TiCNTHREDINOIDEA,   154,   155 

Tkrebrantia,  143,  154 
Termites,  36 
Terrapin  scale,  66 
Testes,  14 

Telramorium  ccespilum,  217 
Texas-fever  tick,  22,  209,  340 
Thistle-butterfly,  101 
Thorax,  6 

Thousand-legged  worm,  20 
Thread-legged  bugs,  61 
Thread-waisted  wasps,  151 
Thrips,  39 
Tibia,  7 
Ticks,  21 
Tiger-beetles,  108 
Tiger-moths,  81 
Tiger  swallow-tail,  95 
Tinea  bisclliella,  221 
pelionella,  220 

TiNEINA,  77 
Tipnlidip,  134 
Tobacco  fumes,  337 
Tobacco,  insecticide,  332 
Tobacco  bud-worm,  80,  253 
Tobacco  flea-beetle,  273,  339 
Tobacco  worms,  278,  339 


Tomato  fruit-worm,  SO,  253 
'I'oinato  worms,  278 
TOKTRICINA,  76,  319 
Toxoplera  graminiun,  248 
Trachea,  12 
Tracheal  gills,  16,  44 
Trap-crojjs,  327 
Tree-crickets,  52 
Tree-hoppers,  63 
Trichodectes  Hcalari.'i,  109 
Trichophaga  tapetzella,  221 
Tkichopteka,  46 
Trochanter,  7 
Troilus  Initterfly,  90 
True  bugs,  56 
True  lice,  37 
True  wasps,  148 
Tiiipdid<r,  140 
Tuml)le-l)ugs,  117 
Turkey-gnat,  136 
Turnus  butterfly,  95 
Tussock-moths,  84 
Tympanum,  17 
Thysanoptera,  39 
Thysanura,  34 

Underwing  moths,  81 

Vagina,  13 
Vas  deferens,  14 
Ventriculus,  10 
Vertex,  6 
Vespa,  150 
Vespoidea,  148 
Viceroy,  102 

Walking-sticks,  48,  53 
A\'alnut-worms,  83,  92 
Warbles,  139 
Wasps,  148 
Water-boatmen,  58 
Water-scavengers,  111 


356 


INDEX 


Water-scorpions,  58 
Water-striders,  58 
Water-tigers,  111 
Web-worm,  fall,  309 
Weeds,  325 
Weevils,  granary,  227 

rice,  227 
Weevils,  125 
Whale-oil  soap,  321 
Wheat  joint-worm,  159 

straw-worm,  160 
Whirligig-beetles,  110 
Whiteants,  36 
White  butterflies,  98 
White-grubs,  119,  236,  340 
White-lined  sphinx,  90 
White-marked  tussock-moth,  84 


Wings,  7 
Wing-veins,  8 
Wire-worms,  115 
Wood-nymphs,  102 
Wood- wasps,  154 
Woolly  apple-aphis,  295 
Worker-bees,  145 
Wrigglers,  133 

Yellow  butterflies,  98 
Yellow-jackets,  148 
Yellow-necked    apple    caterpillar 
83 

Zebra  swallow-tail,  96 
Zoology,  1 
Zygoptera,  44 


THE  WILEY  TECHNICAL  SEMES 

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Instructor,  Department  of  Power  Engineering,  Cornell  University. 
viii+198  pages,  5M  by  8.  _  60  figures.  _  Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

STEAM  POWER.  By  C.  F.  Hirshfeld,  Professor  of  Power  Engi- 
neering, Sibley  College,  Cornell  University,  and  T.  C.  Ulbricht, 
formerly  Instructor,  Department  of  Power  Engineering,  Cornell 
University,     viii+419  pages.     5M  by  8,  228  Figures.  Cloth. 

HEAT  AND  LIGHT  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD.   By  W.  G.  Whitman, 

State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass.     {In  preparation.) 

MECHANICS  AND  MATHEMATICS 

ELEMENTARY  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS.  By  J.  M.  Jameson, 
Girard  College,  formerly  of  Pratt  Institute,  xii+321  pages,  5  by 
7M-     212  figures.     Cloth,  $1.50  ?ie«. 

MATHEMATICS  FOR  MACHINISTS.  By  R.  W.  Burnham, 
Instructor  in  Machine  Work,  Pratt  Institute  Evening  School. 
vii-1-229  pages,  5  by  7.     175  figures.     Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

PRACTICAL     SHOP     MECHANICS    AND    MATHEMATICS. 

By  James  F.  Johnson,  Superintendent  of  the  State  Trade  School, 
Bridgeport,  Conn,  viii  +  130  pages,  5  by  7.  81  figures.  Cloth, 
$1.00  net. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  MECHANISM.  By  Walter  H.  James,  Assistant 
Professor  of  IMechunical  Engineering  Drawing,  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  and  IMalcolm  C.  Mackenzie,  Instructor 
in  Mechanical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology.    {In  Press). 

ARITHMETIC    FOR    CARPENTERS    AND    BUILDERS.     By 

R.  BuRDETTE  Dale,  Assistant  Professor  in  charge  of  Vocational 
Courses  in  Engineering  and  Correspondence  Instruction.  Iowa  State 
College,     ix+231  pages,  5  by  7.     109  figures.     Cloth,  $1.25  net. 


SHOP   TEXTS 

MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE.  By  W.  J.  Kaup,  Special  Repre- 
sentative, Crucible  Steel  Company  of  America,  ix+227  pages 
5Kby8.     163  figures.     Cloth,  $1.25  nci. 

PATTERN  MAKING.  By  Frederick  W.  Turner  and  Daniel 
G.  Town,  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston,  v  +  114  pages 
5  by  7.     88  figures.     Cloth,  $1.00  net. 

PLAIN  AND  ORNAMENTAL  FORGING.  By  Ern.st  Schwarz- 
kopf. Instructor  at  Stuyvesant  High  School,  New  York  City. 
x+267  pages,  5>|  by  8.     Over  400  figures.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


DRAFTING  AND   DESIGN 

DECORATIVE  DESIGN.      A  Text-Book  of  Practical  Methods. 

By  Joseph  Cummings  Chase,  Instructor  in  Decorative  Design  at 
the  College  of  the  City  of  Nev/  York  and  at  Cooper  Union  Woman's 
Art  School,  vi+73  pages.  S  by  lOM-  340  figures.  Cloth, 
$1.50  net. 

AGRICULTURAL  DRAFTING.  ~  By  Charles  B.  Howe,  M.E. 
viii+63  pages,  8  by  lOM-    45  figure.s,  26  plates.     Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DRAFTING.  By  A.  B.  Greenberg,  Stuy- 
vesant Technical  High  School,  New  York,  and  Charles  B.  Howe, 
Bushwick  Evening  High  School,  Brooklyn.  viii  +  110  pages, 
8  by  \Q%.     53  figures,  12  plates.    Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

MECHANICAL  DRAFTING.  By  Charles  B.  Howe,  M.E., 
Bushwick  Evening  High  School,  Brooklyn,  x+147  pages,  8  by 
10?i.     165  figures,  38  plates.     Cloth,  $1.75  net. 


ENGINEERING  DRAFTING.  By  Charles  B.  Howe,  M.E. 
Bush  wick  Evening  High  School,  Brooklyn,  and  Samuel  J.  Berard, 
Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Yale  University.     {In  -preparation.) 

DRAWING  FOR  BUILDERS.  By  R.  Burdette  Dale,  Director 
of  Vocational  Course,  Iowa  State  College,  v  +  166  pages,  8  by 
10%.     69  figures,  50  plates.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE 

FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  STUDIES  OF  SOILS.  By  Pro- 
fessor A.  G.  McCall,  Ohio  State  University,  viii+77  pages, 
5  by  7.     32  figures.     Cloth,  60  cents  net. 

FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  STUDIES  OF  CROPS.  By  Pro- 
fessor A.  G.  McCall,  Ohio  State  University.     viii-|-133  pages, 

5  by  7.     54  figures.     Cloth,  85  cents  net. 

SOILS.     By  Professor  A.  G.  McCall,  Ohio  State  University.     {In 

preparation.) 

MARKET  GARDENING.     By  Professor  F.  L.  Yeaw,  Oasis  Farm 

6  Orchard  Company,  Roswell,  New  Mexico.  Formerly  Professor 
of  Market  Gardening,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  vi  + 
120  pages,  5  by  7.     36  figures.     Cloth,  75  cents  net. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FARM  PRACTICE.  By  T.  E.  Keitt, 
Chemist  of  South  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  and  Professor  of 
of  Soils,  Clemson  Agricultural  College,  xii+253  pages,  5  J^  by  8. 
81  figures.    Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

STUDIES  OF  TREES.  By  J.  J.  Levison,  Formerly  Forester,  Park 
Department,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  x+253  pages,  byi  by  8.  156 
half-tone  illustrations.     Cloth,  $1.60  net. 

AGRICULTURAL    DRAFTING.      By  Charles  B.  Howe,   M.E. 

46  pages,  8  by  lOM-     45  figures,  22  plates.     Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

SCHOOL  ENTOMOLOGY.  For  Secondary  Schools  and  Agri- 
cultural Short  Courses.  By  E.  Dwight  Sanderson,  Formerly 
Dean,  College  of  Agriculture,  West  Virginia  University,  and  L.  M. 
Peairs,  Professor  of  Entomology,  West  Virginia  University,  vii-l- 
356  pages,  6  by  9.     233  figures.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


BIOr.QGY 

LABORATORY    MANUAL   IN   GENERAL   MICROBIOLOGY. 

Prepared  by  the  Laboratory  of  Bacteriology,  Hygiene  and  Patii- 
ology.  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  xvi+418  pages,  5^  by  8. 
73  figures.     Several  tables  and  charts.     Cloth,  $2.50  net. 

COSTUME  DESIGNING 

COSTUME  DESIGN  AND  ILLUSTRATION.  By  Ethel  H. 
Traphagen,  Instructor  and  Lecturer  at  Cooper  Union,  The  New- 
York  Evening  School  of  Industrial  Art,  etc.     (In  Press.) 

PRINTING 

PRINTING.  A  Textbook  for  Printers'  Apprentices,  Continuation 
Classes  and  for  General  Use  in  Schools.  By  Frank  S.  Henry, 
Instructor  in  Printing,  Philadelphia  Trades  School,  ix+318  pages.' 
153  figures.     5H  by  7^.     Cloth,  $1.  25  net. 


THE    LOOSE   LEAF  LABORATORY  MANUAL 


A  series  of  carefully  selected  exercises  to  accompany  the  texts 
of  the  Series,  covering  every  subject  in  which  laboratory  or  field 
work  may  be  given.  Each  exercise  is  complete  in  itself,  and  is 
printed  separately.     8  by  lOJ. 


Important  Notice 
WILEY  LOOSELEAF  MANUALS 

The  sale  of  separate  sheets  of  the  Laboratory  Manuals  of  the  Wiley 
Technical  Series  has  been  discontinued.  These  Manuals  will,  here- 
after, be  sold  only  as  a  complete  book  with  removal  leaves.  Descriptive 
literature  will  be  sent  on  request. 

CHEMISTRY 

Exercises  in  General  Chemistry.  By  Charles  M.  Allen, 
Head  of  Department  of  Chemistry,  Pratt  Institute.  An 
introductory  course  in  Applied  Chemistry,  covering  a  year's 
laboratory  work  on  the  acid-forming  and  metallic  elements  and 
compounds.  62  pages,  8  by  10}/^.  61  exercises. 
Complete  in  paper  cover.     Removal  leaves.     $1.00  net. 

Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.  By  Charles  M.  Allen,  Head 
of  Department  of  Chemistry,  Pratt  Institute.  12  pamphlets. 
8  by  lOJ/^.  Complete  in  paper  cover.    Removal  leaves.    $1.00  ne<. 

Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  By  C.  E.  Bivins,  Instructor  in 
Qualitative  Analysis,  Pratt  Institute.  11  pamphlets,  supple- 
mented by  Work  Sheets  by  which  the  student  is  taught  equa- 
tions and  chemical  processes.  Complete  with  work  sheets  in 
paper  cover.    Removal  leaves.     $1.25  net. 

Technical  Chemical  Analysis.  By  R.  H.  H.  Axjngst,  Instructor 
in  Technical  Chemistry,  Pratt  Institute.  19  pamplilets.  8  by 
\Q]/2-     Complete.     Removal  leaves.    85  cents  net. 

Exercises  in  Industrial  Chemistry.  By  Dr.  Allen  Rogers, 
Instructor  in  Qualitative  Analysis,  Pratt  Institute,  (/n  Tprep- 
aration.) 


THE  LOOSE  EEAF  LABORATORY  ^L\NUAL-C.m/. 


MECHANICS   AND  HEAT 

Exercises  in  Mechanics.  By  J.  M.  Jajieson,  Girard  College; 
Formerly  of  Pratt  Institute.  52  exercises.  Complete  in  paper 
cover.     Removal  leaves.    85  cents  net. 

Exercises  for  the  Applied  Mechaxiics  Laboratory.  Steam; 
Strength  of  Materials;  Gas  Engines;  and  Hydraulics.  By 
J.  P.  KoTTCAMP,  M.E.,  Instructor  in  Steam  and  Strength  of 
Materials,  Pratt  Institute.  8  by  103^.  58  exercises,  with 
numerous  cuts  and  tables.  Complete  in  paper  cover.  Removal 
leaves.    $1.00  net. 


ELECTRICITY 

Exercises  in  Heat  and  Light.  By  J.  A.  Randall,  Instructor  in 
Mechanics  and  Heat,  Pratt  Institute.  17  exercises,  with  nu- 
merous cuts  and  diagrams.  8  by  lOJ^.  Complete  in  paper 
cover.     Removal  leaves.     34  cents  net. 

Electrical  Measurements,  A.  C.  and  D.  C.  By  W.  H.  Timbie. 
Head  of  Department  of  Applied  Science,  Wentworth  Institute 
52  Exercises.     Complete  in  paper  cover,  85  cents  7iet.    ' 

Elementary  Electrical  Testing.  By  Professor  V.  Ivarapetoff, 
Cornell  Universit}',  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  25  exercises.  Complete 
in  paper  cover.     Removal  leaves.     50   cents  net. 

Electrical  Measurements  in  Testing.  {Direct  and  Alternating 
Current.)  By  Chester  L.  Daw^es,  Instructor  in  Electrical  En- 
gineering, Harvard  University.  In  charge  of  Industrial  Elec- 
tricity, Franklin  Union,  Boston.  39  Exercises.  Complete  in 
paper  cover.     Removal  leaves.     75  cents  net. 


THE  LOOSE  LEAF  LABORATORY   MANUAL-Con<. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE 

Studies  of  Trees:  Their  Diseases  and  Care.  By  J.  J.  Levison, 
M.F.,  Lecturer  on  Ornamental  and  Shade  Trees,  Yale  University 
Forest  School,  Forester  to  the  Department  of  Parks,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  20  pamphlets,  8  by  10^.  $1-00  7iet.  A  cloth  binder  for 
above  sold  separately.     50  cents  net. 

Exercises  in  Farm  Dairying.  By  Professor  C.  Larsen,  De- 
partment of  Dairy  Husbandr}^  South  Dakota  State  College. 
Loose  leaf.  8  by  10|.  69  Exercises.  Complete.  Removal 
leaves.     $L00  net. 

Exercises  in  Agricultural  Chemistry.  By  Professor  T.  E.  Keitt, 
Clemson  Agricultural  College.     {In  -preparation.) 

DRAWING 

AGRICULTURAL   DRAFTING    PROBLEMS.      By  Charles  B. 
Howe,   M.E.     A  Manual  for  Students  of  Agriculture  to   Sup- 
plement the  Text  in  Agricultural   Drafting,     26   plates.     8  by 
lOH-     In  paper  cover.     Removal  leaves.     50  cents  net. 
t 

THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  By  A.  Benton  Greenberg. 
A  Manual  for  Students  of  Architecture  to  Supplement  the 
Text  in  Architectural  Drafting.  20  plates.  8  by  103^.  In  paper 
cover.      Removal  leaves.     50  cents  net. 


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